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HARVARD UNIVERSITY
FRANCES LOEB LIBRARY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF DESIGN
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57th C!on6RE88, I HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. J Document
l8t Session, f } No. 610.
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION
CHICAGO, ILL., 1893.
EEPOET
OF THE •
COMMITTEE ON AWARDS
OF THE
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN COMMISSION.
SPECIAL REPORTS
UPON'
SPECIAL SUBJECTS OR GROUPS.
IN TWO VOLUMES. Vol. II.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 10 01.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
VOIiUME I.
Page.
Architecture of the World's Columbian Exposition. By Henry Van Brant, judge 5
Art Embroideries in the Woman's Building. By Mrs. F. G. Stebbln.«», judge 25
Modem Bread-Making Machinery and Ovens. By P. J. McMahon , judge 35
Brick-Making Machinery. ByW.-C. Lemert 43
Bronzes. By L. G. Larcau 85
Bronaesin the Japanese Section. By Miss Emily Crawford 117
Collective Exhibit of the Bureau of the American Republics. By Thomas Wilson 1 23
Cocoa and Chocolate. By J. S. Brenning 157
Colonial and Revolutionary Objects. By Anne Hollingsworth Wharton, judge 167
Portraitsof Columbus. By Prof. Thomas Wilson, judge 187
Collective Exhibit in the Convent of La Rabida, at the World's Columbian Exposition. By
Thomas Wilson, judge 193
Corsets and Dress-Cutting Systems, etc. By Hannah Freud, judge 201
Cotton Threads and Fabrics. BvMrs. Peter M. Wilson 209
Diamond-Cutting Display of Tiffany & Co., New York. By J. D. Yerringtou : 217
Drawn Work. By Margaret Windeyer 221
Electricity:
Report on Direct Constant-Current Dynamos. By Henry S. Carhart, LL. D 227
Report on Rubber Covered Insulated Wires for Electric-Light Wiring. By Dugald C.
Jackflon 268
Present Stage of Electro-Therapeutics. By Wm. J . Herdman, Ph. B., M. D 275
Embroidery and Needlework. By Mary Imlay Taylor 293
Enamels:
Enamels of all Nations, as Exhibited in the Columbian Exposition. By E. Crawford 303
Japanese Cloisonn<5. By Mrs. E. Crawford 307
Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture 311
Ethnology :
Anthropology'. By Prof. O. T. Mason 819
Archaeological Exhibits of Central America and Mexico. By Zelia Nuttall, judge 323
The Archseology of the Saginaw Valley, as Illustrated at the World's Columbian Exposi- tion. By Harlan I.Smith 829
A Cave-Bear Skull Exhibited by Dr. Wankel, of Austria. By Prof. Thomas Wilson 383
Egypt, Babylonia, and Greece. By Mrs. Sara Y. Stevenson 335
Notes on Eskimo Traditions. By Harlan I. Smith 347
A Collection of Pictures and other Objects Illustrating the Manners, Customs, and Condi- tions of the People of the Latin- American Republics. By Thomas Wilson, judge 355
Historical and Educational Report on Psychology. By Prof. J. Mark Baldwin 357
Europe and the Fair. By Theodore Stanton 405
Farming Tools, Implements, and Machinery. By Calvin Young, judge 425
Ferris Wheel. By Luther V. Rice.. 473
Ftsh and Fisheries. By W. R. Capehart 481
Fisheries Exhibit. By L. Z. Joncas, judge 485
Preliminary Report of Investigation of Foods Exhibited at the World's Fair. By Prof. W. O.
Atwater 497
Forests in Japan. By ShikazoSuwa 549
III
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IV TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page.
Utilization of Forest Product*. By G. ScUergren 657
Nova Scotia Fniits and Fruit-Growing. By B. Starmtt 618
The Furs. By Edmund R. Lyon 61&
Gold and Silver Mining: The Accessories, Processes, etc. By William P. Blake 62»
Gox-ernment and Law. By Dr. Richard Hirsch, judge 719
Hair. By Ellen D. Bacon 7»
Horticulture:
The Cannas. By Fred Kanst 745
Ciderand Fruit Juices. By Lud wig Schiller, judge 749
Grapes. By Sylvester Johnson 753
Hardy Plants and Garden Designs. By Warren H. Manning 757
Seeds, Seed Raising, Testing, and Distribution. By Dr. L. Wittmark, judge 789
Heating Appliances. By Prof. R. Hitchcock 811
VOIiUME II.
Honey and Bees. By Eugene Secor * 85ft
Horology. By Charles F. Carpenter, M. D 869
Hygiene and Sanitation. By Miss Annesley Kenealy, judge 923
Instruments of Precision other than Electrical and Magnetic. By J. H. Gore, judge ffJ*
Artistic Ironwork. By L. G. Laureau 951
Ivory and Wood Carvings, etc. By Albert H. Dainty 96a
Machine- Made Laces and Curtains. By Fritz Graeber 97&
Lamps. By Walters. Lenox 981
Liquors:
Beer: History and Advancement of the Art of Brewing. By Eugene F. Welgel 987
Whiskies, etc. By GuidoMarx 997
History of the Vine, the Grape, and the Wine. By E. Dubois . . .• 1019
Wines and Brandies of California. By E. Dubois 1043
Livestock: Arab Horses. By Rev. F. F. Vidal 1049
Machinerj'. By R. H. Thurston, judge 1055
Manganese from Virginia. By John S. Apperson 107i
Munitions of W^ar:
Munitions of War. By W. C. Dodge 1077
Firearms, Ammunition, etc. By W. C. Dodge 1105
Government Exhibit of Guns and Ammunition. By Capt. Andrew H. Russell, U. S. Army. 1129
Knipp Exhibit. By W. C. Dodge 1297
Orchids. By F. Sander 1305
Ornithology:
Ornithology. By Prof. Robert Rlilgcway 1313
Birds. By Dr. R. W. Shufeldt 1341
Pharmacy. By J. D. Humphrey, M.D 1347
Photography. By C.T.Stuart 1363
Refrigerators. By Dr. Robert W. Hill 1369
Sewing, Crocheting, Knitting, and Embroidery. By Miss Helene E. Correll 139S
Sewing Machines. By James Bolton 1403
Silk Exhibit of Lyons, France. By H. L. Gargan 1415
Sugar and other Sweets. By George C. Taylor, LL. D 1421
Tapestry. By Mrs. Henry Stockbridge 1447
Taxidermy. By Dr. R. W. Shufeldt 1463
Tobacco. By Joseph B. Moos 1471
Transportation: Vej^els, Boats, Marine, Lake, and River Transportntion, Naval Warfare, etc.
By Capt. V. M. Concas 1487
Wool:
New South Wales Wool Exhibit. By Henry G. KIttredge 1505
Wools and other Animal Fibers. By William McMurtrie, E. M ., Ph. D 1519
Yom Kippur on the Midway. By Isidor Lewi .^-^ ^... 1691
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HONEY AND BEES.
EUGKNE SECOR.
ST)!)
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HONEY AND BEES.
By Eugene Sboor.
The landing of the caravels on the shores of the New World marked an epoch in the world's history. Four hundred years, occupancy of this Continent by the Caucasian race was fittingly commemorated by the Columbian Exposition. The celebration of the discovery of America by Columbus furnished the American people an occasion to review the progress made along many lines of thought and industrial activity never before enjoyed. At that marvelous aggregation of the world's products there was an opportunity for comparison, for study, for instruction in science, in art, in manufactures, and in the products of the field, mine, and forest, which was only circumscribed by the limitations of time and the endurance of the student. As in other lines of activity specialists delight to compare notes and record advancements made, so it is interesting to the bee keeper to review the progress made in the domain of apiculture.
It is supposed that bees appeared on the earth in the cretaceous period, or at the same time that flowering plants were created. That the earth might the more speedily and effectually be clothed with lux- uriant vegetation, bees, which act as marriage priests to the flowers, were needed for the highest development of plant life. It is probably true that when man appeared on the earth he found the nectar of flowers in the form of honey already stored for his use. We assume that the bee industry is as old as the dairy, and that milk and honey were among the articles provided for the sustenance of man from the earliest times. Sugar is a comparatively recent invention. Honey is as old as the race.
We have very early mention of honey as an article of food and com- merce, and if the bee of that period was not identical with the Apis mdifica of the present time, it must have been a near relative. As early as the time of Joseph the land of Caanan was celebrated for its delicious honey. That was one of the dainties which Jacob ordered his sons to take to the Egyptian ruler as a peace offering when they went down the second time to buy corn. No higher recommendation for any country was then known than to say it was a land *' flowing with milk and honey." It is also mentioned in Ezekiel, chapter 27, as an article of commerce between the Jews and the inhabitants of Tyre
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six hundred years B. C. The fragmentary history preserved 'of that early period gives us but little insight into the art of bee keeping. It is not likely, however, that bees were domesticated to any considera- ble extent, if at all. Being natives of a mild climate, where they needed no protection except that afforded by caves and hollow trees, they multiplied rapidly no doubt, and the ancients had only to appro- priate the stores the bees had provided for their own future use. Later, we learn that bees were kept (as the}'^ are to-day in some Eastern coun- tries) in cylindrical earthen tubes open at lx)th ends, from which the peasantry broke the honey-laden combs and either sold or used it in that broken condition or pressed the liquid out in the most primitive fashion. Of course that obtained in the last-mentioned manner was more or less contaminated by dead bees, pollen, and soiled combs which injured the color and taste, and was a very inferior article compared with the pure nectar of flowers thrown from the combs by centrifugal force as now practiced by progressive and skillful apiarists. Modern bee keeping is quite a different thing from the practice of those times. Indeed, it is less than a hundred years since the foundation was laid for a more intelligent prosecution of the industry.
When the observations of Francis Huber were made public an impe- tus was given to the subject which has increased to the present time. From him we obtained the rudiments of the knowledge of the honey- bee which was the beginning of scientific apiculture. Ignorance of the natural history of bees and its almost certain concomitant — supersti- tion— began to give way to a more rational belief and intelligent prac- tice. But as ignorance is always slow to recede before the ad vance col umn of a more enlightened theory, it was nearly fifty years later — not a half century ago — when Dzierzon in Germany and Langstroth in America, each unknown to the other, developed a system of management in the apiary that revolutionized bee keeping. It made the hive an open book to every investigator. That system was the invention of the movable comb hive. Since that time advancement has been rapid and constant. It is probably within the bounds of truth to assert that more real progress has been made in apiarian knowledge and in the develop- ment of honey production in the last fifty years than in all previous recorded time.
Within the memory of men now living, a book on the natural history^ of the honeybee, or on scientific bee keeping, was a thing unknown. The internal economy of the beehive was as much a mystery as a dream. The bee was accredited with superhuman wisdom by the peas- antry of all countries. Now thousands upon thousands of eager stu- dents are prying into the secrets of this newly found worker for man's benefit, and ransacking the world for improved bees and methods. Quite a library can now be obtained, devoted exclusively to the sub- ject of bees and bee keeping. In the English language alone we now
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recall creditable volumes by such learned authors and skilled bee keepers as Cheshire, Cowan, Simmins, Langstroth, Quinby, Cook, Newman, Root, Miller, Dadant, and Doolittle, besides numerous bro- chures on some special phase of the subject. There are also published in this country alone the following journals devoted exclusivel}^ to bee keeping and its kindred pursuits: One weekly, one biweekly, five monthlies; while nearly all of the agricultural weeklies and monthlies devote a portion of their space to the apiary under the editorial charge of some practical bee keeper. Thus, apiarian knowledge is disseminated through the press.
BEE keepers' societies.
It is but little more than thirty years since the first apicultural society was organized. In some of the countries of Europe — notably, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria — societies have multiplied, nomadic instruction in apiculture has been adopted and has proved so oeneficial and popular that a course in apiculture has been included in some of their agricultural colleges. Societies in the above-named countries have at times numbered six or seven hundred members, and the subscribers to their society reports more than twice as many. In Great Britain the British Bee Keepers' Society is very successfully managed and influential. It grants certificates of ability to experts who are permitted to lecture before conventions, affiliated societies, and farmers' meetings in the Kingdom. Ontario, Canada, gmnts her leading society a small annual appropriation for the encouragement of this growing branch of rural economy. In our own country the North American Bee Keepers' Society was organized twenty-four years ago. It is intended to be both representative and local in its character and influence, and is moved annually to accommodate as many bee keepers as possible in our vast country. Many of the States have State societies with annual meetings. County and district societies are also numerous.
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
So important has the subject of apiculture become that several of the State experiment stations have authorized original investigations by pi-actical and scientific experts to settle, if possible, some of the many unsolved problems that confront the honey producer.
The importance of the honeybee in the economy of nature has long been recognized by scientifi(^ bee keepers, but not so fully by horti- culturists and farmers from lack, no doubt, of sufficient knowledge on the subject. But through apicultural societies and publications there seems to be a better understanding between them and an admission on the part of most horticulturists that the hive bee is an important agent in the pollenation of many of the fruits, and that no injury is done to blossoms or fruit by the bees. Experiments have been conducted
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proving that bees never injure sound fruit, and that the beneficent offi- ces performed by them for the horticulturist, the market gardener, and the farmer are of such value that the industry of bee keeping should be encouraged by every proper means. That it is encouraged by governments generally is proved by the establishments of experi- ment stations and appropriations by States and provinces in the inter- est of bee keepers. But as the science and art of bee keeping is becom- ing better understood the tendency is toward specialization. Instead of a few colonies kept by each farmer as was fomierly done, men trained in all the knowledge necessary to, success manage apiaries aggregating, in some instances, two thousand colonies, kept in sepa- rate localities, called out-aparies. It has not been found profitable in this country to maintain in one yard more than two hundred colonies.
STATISTICS.
According to compilations ty the Government Census Bureau in the enumeration of 1890 the number of pounds of honey produced in the United States in the year previous was 63,897,327. Pounds of wax returned for same year, 1,166,588. At a very moderate average price for these products their value is nearly $7,000,000. If the year 1889 was not an average one, which I believe was true, then the value of the average crop of honey in the United States would exceed the above estimate. Honey being a distillation in nature's floi'al laboratory, the supply depends largely on atmospheric or meteorological conditions. To get a fair average of the annual production a series of consecutive years should be taken. The above-mentioned aggregate of honey pro- duced in one year is but a small fraction of the honey resources of the country. This is shown by the enormous kmounts produced by specialists within limited areas. The areas so occupied and developed are but the beginnings of possible production.
EXHIBITS AT THE WORLD'S FAIR.
The exhibits in the apiarian department of the Columbian Exhibition were mostly installed in the east gallery of the agicultui*al building. Glass cases were provided by the States and provinces competing, under the direction of the Agricultural Department. These cases were uni- form in size and were about 5 by 20 feet, 6 feet high, inside. A glance through this gallery revealed the fact of tons of honey displayed in every conceivable form that the fancy of the producer and the inge- nuity of the superintendent could dictate. Besides the glass cases were many exhibits of bee keepers' appliances, consisting of hives, supers, honey extractors, sections, foundation mills, machines for putting sections together and automatically fastening the starters, smokers, honey knives, escapes, etc. Some old-fashioned round straw hives, so familiar in illustrations for the past hundred years, were
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there to show the methods employed by bee keepers of past genex*a- tions. Alongside of these were exhibited the modern movable frame hive with various contrivances for obtaining honey in its purity and in the best marketable shape.
The comb honey on exhibition was mostly in 1 -pound section boxes, made of white poplar or linen, some of which were glassed on both sides, but whether glassed or not generally built between separators, giving to the finished product an even and handsome appearance, no mat- ter what the source from which gathered. There were many fanciful designs and mottoes worked out by the bees in comb honey.
Extracted honey was shown in large quantities. The style of recep- tacle varied from the small large-mouthed bottle to the large long- necked decanter — in packages adapted to retail trade and in cases suitable for shipment — in its liquid state as taken from the combs, and in granulated form (a condition which most extracted honey assumes when long removed from the hive and exposed to changes of climate). In addition to the exhibit of honey and appliances there were a number of colonies arranged along the east wall of the building with exits for the bees outside and far above the crowds of people on the ground below. These colonies were successfully managed during the summer and stored a fine lot of honey. They were Italians and Carniolans.
Of the glass cases above referred to, New York filled three with exhibits, besides many fixtures shown outside; Illinois, two, and Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, Indiana, Minnesota, and Wisconsin each, one. States and Territories having entries in smaller quantities, and in some instances shown in their agricultural sections below, were California, Washington, Nevada, Colorado, and Maine. Many of the States had superintendents in charge of their apiarian exhibits whose pleasure it seemed to be to impait instruction to the interested visitor. Much useful information was no doubt dissemi- nated thereby.
The exhibits from the States did not adequately represent the indus- try in all parts of our vast domain. The reason for this lay chiefly in the fact that the State appropriations for the fair were in many cases too small to properly represent all the industries. Many States noted for their fine and large crops of honey made no exhibit or only a few samples from some patriotic apiarist.
Only those States which granted a liberal sum to the bee keepers were creditably represented. A minor reason probably influenced the bee keepers in some of the States to withhold exhibits. As before hinted, the yield and quality of honey being largely due to climatic influences, and the conditions in 1892 not being favorable, they lost interest in the matter because they could not show what they deemed worthy of exhibition.
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FOREIGN EXHIBITS.
Aside from the fine exhibit from Ontario, which showed that the bee keepers of that Province were among the foremost in the world, the foreign exhibits were mostly confined to liquid honey and apiarian appliances, and were not shown in the east gallery of the agricultuml building, but were among the foreign exhibits, either in other parts of the agricultural building or in other parts of the grounds. The British bee keepers society had a large and exceedingly interesting collection of extracted honey from different localities in England, Scotland, and Ireland, put up in bottles of uniform size and style and made attractive by finely printed labels. The other countries exhibiting honey, or appliances, or both, were: Italy, Greece, Russia, Ottoman Empire, New South Wales, Ceylon, Siam, Spain, Argentine Republic, Republic of Ixjuador, Guatemala, Brazil, Costa Rica, Haiti, Mexico, and Venezuela.
These foreign honeys were subjected to the disadvantages of change of climate, want of freshness (as they were all of 1892 crop or earlier), and lack of persons in charge who understood how to properly care for them, but much fine honey was shown in spite of unf avoidable conditions.
Russia exhibited a very interesting collection of hives and models of hives, and implements used in the apiaries of that country, showing that modern ideas have taken root in the minds of the Russian bee keepers.
LESSONS TAUGHT BY THE EXPOSITION.
Observing bee keepers could not but learn that quality in honey is essential to the highest success. The low price of sugar brings it into use in every family in the country. Honey therefore becomes a lux- ury, as it can not be produced at a profit in competition with cane sugar or glucose syrup. If these facts are conceded by the honey producer, the only way to improve his condition is to improve the quality of his product. If the matter were left entirely to the bees, there would be little difficulty, but since the invention of the extractor much liquid honey is taken in an unripe state, with consequent deterioration of quality, injuring the sale not only of this particular lot, but of good honey as well.
It is now generally understood by the foremost bee keepers that nothing but the finest should ever be put on the market for table use, the cheaper gmdes being sold to bakers and manufai^turers.
In the production of comb honey, the style of box, the manner in which the comb is finished by the bees, and its general neatness has much to do with its geneml- acceptance by the public. The section box should be well filled, the comb straight, all sealed, the wood white and thoroughly cleaned of all stains; in fact, it must be as near perfect as possible .to insure the highest price.
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It can be said to the credit of American bee keepers that they are not only the largest producei*8 in the world, but that the quality of their products compared favorably with the best from other countries, while in the matter of improvements they are undoubtedly ahead of any other nation.
The enterprise shown in the importation of bees from the Old World is highly commendable. The earth has been ransacked by Americans for improved strains. Bees from Italy, Syria, the Isle of Cyprus, Egypt, and Carniola have been introduced and are now bred in this couutry.
Probably the most important inventions and the most practical appliances have been in the method of securing comb honey. The section boxes now in use and the armngement for mpidly handling them in the apiary are a great advance over the practice a quarter of a century ago, while in the machinery for making hives, sections, and for the manufacture of comb foundation for starters there would seem to be little chance for improvement.
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HOROLOGY.
BY
CHARLES F. CARPENTER, M. D.
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HOROLOGY.
By Charles F. Carpenter, M. D.,
Honorary Commissioner of the United Slaies at the Vienna Tnlemaiional ExposUion ofl87S; Member of the International Board of JudgeSj World^s Columbian J5irpo«7ton, 189S.
The Government reports on the Vienna Exposition in 1873 and on the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 contain full informa- tion in regard to the progress made in this group to these dates. We will therefore notice principally the changes and improvements made during the- past seventeen years. There were exhibits from our own country, Switzerland, Germany, France, Russia, Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, New South Wales, and Spain, showing the degree of excel- lence they have acquired in this industry.
It must be taken into consideration, in regard to the large number of awards given to foreign countries, that before their exhibits were sent here they were submitted to committees for their judgment in selecting the bes\, as deserving to represent their skillful handiwork. When we consider the importance of instruments for keeping time in regulating the affairs of mankind, aiding the astronomer in his nightly vigils, guiding the mariner over the pathless ocean, controlling the movements of railway trains, and giving security to the lives of millions of travelers, we can form some idea of their great value. Representing as this group does the utmost skill of man in bringing to such marvelous perfection one of the most wonderful productions of mechanical skill be is capable of constructing, it should excite our greatest admiration. It is not only the mechanical execution we should consider, for the mechanism embraces principles deduced from the highest branches of science, which but few men in the world understand well enough to apply practically and successfully to instruments for keeping time. Fifty years ago England was unrivaled in this industry; now not one in ten thousand watches sold in this country is of English make. Their detached or patent levers having a fusee and chain were generally regarded as giving the best results, and for a long time continued most in demand. A Swiss writer in 1878 said: '*The English then went complacently asleep in the conviction of having set up limits which their rivals or successors could never excel." At this early time watches without a fusee and chain, with anchor or lever escapements, of excellent construction and finish, were made in Switzerland, but
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owing to the very limited knowledge among watchmakers of the possible performance of an isochronal balance spring in regulating the effect of the varying force exerted by the mainspring, the fusee and chain system still continued mostly in use. The tJurgensens and Swiss made watches with isochronal balance springs whose performance convinced those who used them that the fusee and chain might be left out and yet a satisfactory result in time keeping obtained. Then came the American watch companies with their millions of watches made by machinery, all without a fusee and chain, dep)ending upon an isochronal balance spring to correct the variation in time keeping, caused bj^ the varying force of a mainspring.
As a result of the exhibits at the Centennial Exposition the Swiss and English makers became alarmed at their future prospects in this important industry. A Swiss commissioner and juror after his return home said:
Had the Philadelphia Exhibition taken place five years later we would have been totally annihilated without knowing whence or how we received the terrible blow. We have believed ourselves masters of the situation when we really have been on a volcano, and to-day we must actually struggle if we do not want to encounter in all the markets that rival manufacture. It remains for us to profit from thia sad experience and improve our manufacture.
They went earnestlj'^ to work and with the aid of schools of horology established at Geneva, Locle, Chaux de Fonds, Nouchatel, St. Smier, and Bienne have wonderfully improved their watches in principles of construction, cheapness, and, as we see by their observatory certifi- cates, in keeping time. They have a hereditary skill in their handi- work acquired through over nine generations of experience, and with the aid of technical schools, under the direction of their most skillful men of genius, their productions now have attained to the mnk of the fine arts, and are getting the favor of our dealers and the public to such an extent that is going to be severely felt b}^ our great watch factories.
In our report on the Vienna Exposition twenty years ago we wrote:
The wonderful advance made in watch making in our own country la one of the remarkable instances in which an entirely new industry ha.s l)een taken up, an immense product put upon the market, and a national reputation established in about twenty years, competing successfully with countries that have Ixjen engaged in it since its infancy, aided by exceedingly low prices for labor. To sustain the position we now hold, apart from further progress, will require the utmost energy and skill we have at our command.
The question will now come up. Have we sustained relatively that position, and how much progress have we made? We have the mechanical skill and ingenuity to make wonderful and effective auto- matic machines for forming and finishing the different parts required, but when it comes to new principles of construction in watches the man nmst be born to it, and also educated through nawy years of
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experience. Many so-called improvements, made in late years, have already been abandoned, and the same fate surely awaits many of the new constructions now in use. It is remarkable, in looking at the different forms of construction by celebrated makers, to see the indi- viduality shown in them; yet with all it will be very difficult, if not impossible, to find one that has in every part the most approved principles already known.
We find watches well made in immense numbers of all grades and makers, but all have some objectionable points in their construction, which can only be known to those who have an intimate and practical experience through many years of special study of their mechanism. Here is an open field for a person having the proper capacity to assem- ble in one movement the best construction of individual parts. He must have a superior judgment, resulting from skill and experience, with a special genius to accomplish such a work in this course. Com- bined with new principles that may be discovered lies the hope of our success in the future, for something of this kind must be done soon to prevent a serious condition of thib industry in our country. For sev- ei'al years the "tom billon" watch, invented a long time ago, has given remarkable results, as attested by observatory certificates. This com- plicated and expensive construction, requires the greatest care and skill when repair's are done to it. Many other watches of delicate and com- plicated construction such as split seconds, repeaters, and those adjusted for isochronism, position, and temperature, made in Switzer- land, come to this country, and their fate will be a sad one unless their owners take the greatest care to place them in competent hands to be kept in order.
The art of watch repairing is now in a deplorable condition in this country. Fifty years ago it was learned under the tuition of a master for a period of about five years, individual skill was recognized and * developed, the apprentice became practically proficient, more or less, according to his natural talent, and when he could make a perfect working verge escapement he was capable of doing all the work required at that time; he received but little education in the theory or science of horology beyond that he might get from Reid's Watchmak- ing, if he was fortunate enough to have access to a copy of it. Now the state of the art is very diflferent; the errors of minutes then are now reduced to seconds; complicated watches in a great variety of constructions, requiring the most skillful manipulation to preserve their adjustments, are everywhere, and when one of them gets into the hands of an incompetent workman, and his name is legion, its consti- tution is gone; by filing, hammering, or bending, as the case may be, it soon becomes of no use to its owner. In our great product of millions of watches, when a piece is lost or broken its number or description is sent to the material department of the factory that made it, a corre- sponding piece is returned which may or may not fit exactly, but with
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a little fitting at furthest ''will do." Consequently a very large num- ber of workmen who have "learned the business," (?) without proper tuition, experience, or capacity, are now doing the general repairs, cleaning, etc. Seldom is found a proprietor of a watch and jewelry store who has more than the slightest knowledge of watch repairing. Consequently he employs workmen at the lowest price, and of course the grade of the work done is as low as the price. The truly skillful repairers of watches are very few in number. A knowledge of the con- struction and peculiarities of a great many different kinds of watches is required, and a special aptitude to understand in a very short time any new forms of construction that present themselves, so that the fault preventing a proper performance may be located and remedied. This faculty is mrely to be found. Thousands of persons can make the individual parts of watches without a fault, and they are made by a division of labor, but it takes a master mind to reason out, as is often required, the cause of unsatisfactory performance in a watch. And, then, the remuneration is so small for such work that even a competent and skilled artist will often abandon the business and seek some other occupation, where his. ability will be properly remunerated, thus too often leaving the work to fall into the hands of unskilled workmen who finally ruin it. The long lever, as used in Swiss "ancre" watches sixty years ago, and more fully developed in the Jurgensen type of watches, appears to be generally superseded by a shorter construction. In some watches it is but slightly longer than one arm of the pallet. This appears to be about as short as it can be made, as it then requiies a very small roller. The short lever is adopted by nearly all the best Swiss makers, and in some watches the end of the lever that projects over the escapement wheel, which is left there more for ornament than use, is left off entirely, thus allowing the pallets to be more easily cleaned and preventing the lodgment of fuzzy matter between the free end of the lever and the escapement wheel. Many forms of patent regulators have come into use that will be abandoned after having had their day in serving the retailers as "an important improvement" when selling their watches. There are objections to most of them. When an ordinary regulator fails to improve the rate of running, there is but little or no use for a patent regulator. Thinner and more elastic mainsprings are much in favor and have superior merits. In some watches we find the stop work allows five turns of the mainspring in wind- ing one turn of the mainspring in "getting up," and one free turn that remains after the watch is wound, having seven turns in all. When winding such a watch there is an agreeable feeling that no part of its mechanism is subject to an injurious strain, and that the winding force required has but little variation from the beginning to the end. More attention is being given to balances and balance springs. The improvement in these particular parts is surprising, and the fact that
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watches with observatory certificates can be bought in Switzerland for 60 francs goes to show how wonderfully expert they have become in rapidly adjusting balances and balance springs in position, tempera- ture, and isochronism.
Various forms of construction that are very questionable improve- ments have come into use to prevent injury to the train when a main- spring breaks. In former years, when the Swiss center pinion had very thin leaves, it was not very unusual to find, when a mainspring broke, that one or two leaves of the center pinion were broken by the rebound of the barrel, and sometimes a third wheel pivot was also broken oflf. This was particularly the case when some incompetent person had put in too strong a mainspring. But where watches are provided with a reasonably thin mainspring, the leaves of the center pinion having a proper thickness, and rounded at the bottom of the leaves instead of being cut square, and the third wheel pivot a proper size, it will very rarely happen that there will be any damage to these parts by a main- spring breaking. The screw-nut center pinion is the simplest and best of all the contrivances in use to absolutely prevent this injury to the train.
Many stem winding and setting arrangements that have been intro- duced in the past few years are giving great dissatisfaction, and will be the cai^se of much vexation to owners and repairers of watches. Some of these systems border on the ridiculous, and in the number of pieces used are very objectionable; stem winding and setting work should be made durable and effective, winding smoothly, and with as few pieces as possible. Some makers accomplish this, and have proven the soundness of their principles by many years of use. Nickel move- ments are most extensively shown, and appear to be greatly in favor with the public; but in artistic beauty and resistance to oxidizing influ- ences they are far inferior to well grained and gilded work. Many so-called nickel movements are really an alloy of soft metals that somewhat resemble nickel, while others are brass, electroplated with nickel.
A new trouble now confronts the watch industry in the liability of watches to be seriously injured by magnetizing influences, thereby affecting their timekeeping qualities to such an extent that they per- form in a very irregular and unreliable manner. It is said by many persons that the magnetism can be entirely removed, yet other reliable authorities say that it will reappear after a short time. Various devices have been tried to prevent this trouble, but the entirely satis- factory one is yet to come.
The compensating balance now in general use was invented about one hundred years ago. Its arms and inside rim are made of steel. When it is magnetized it will act like a magnetic needle, pointing north and south, and will be attracted by any iron or steel work that is
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near it, causing a very irregular rate in timekeeping. Nonmagnetic metals have been used entirely in making compensating balances. So far they have failed to a great extent in securing the confidence of the public, and consequently are but little used. The balance spring, or hairspring as it is usually called, being made of steel, is also affected by magnetism. Various nonmagnetic metals and alloys have been tried in the place of steel. Some say they have given good results, but the fact that they do not come more into general use shows that their performance is not entirely satisfactory.
It appears that many nonmagnetic watches that have been sold and practically tested have performed tolerably well for a few months, and then began to give such dissatisfaction as to finally result in their being laid aside or returned to the dealer that sold them. Electrical appliances and magnetic machinery are now all around us. Any person carrying a watch is liable to have it magnetized, and consequently lose faith in it as a time keeper. It is therefore greatly desired to have watches that will perfonn as well as those having steel balances and hairsprings, and 3^et not be affected by magnetizing influences. We have faith from the result of experiments recently made that this trouble will be overcome by the use of a nonmagnetic balance made of metals having the proper difference in coefficients of expansion in changing temperatures, and at the same time having the rigidity and elasticity required, combined with a balance spring that will have and retain the properties of isochronism and elasticit}^ of flexure.
The author of an English publication says of the firm of Japy Brothers, Beaucourt, France:
Their production of watch movements began in 1870, and from that time to 1888 amounted to 35,326,930. During 1888 they supplied these movements to Swiss and Besan^on manufacturers to the extent of 1,200,000, who ciise and complete them. Besides these, the firm of Japy have lately taken to manufacturing a complete metal keyless watch at the incredibly low price of 5 shillings — a watch provided, like a real timekeeper, with a barrel and mainspring, a center wheel, third and fourth wheels, an escape wheel, a cylinder with balance and balance-spring motion, dial wheels, and a pair of hands, the whole in rather a tasty case. The work is certainly rough, very rough, but the watch goes, and one taken at haphazard from several boxes which were given us for examination, and which we kei)tfora fortnight, went very well indeed until we broke the cylinder; then the question of replacing it sug- gested another train of thought as to the relation of repairs to prime cost.
The foregoing shows what has been done by the aid of labor-saving machinery, division of labor, and an immense capital. These watches, like the cheapest productions made in this country, soon wear them- selves out of order, but they answer a purpose to those who wish only approximate time, and that only for a short period.
It is of the utmost importance to the student, when he commences practical work in constructing instruments for keeping time, that he should have a technical education. The schools of horology at Geneva,
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Chaux do Fends, Locle, Neuchatel, Bienne, etc., have had an immense influence in raising the Swiss productions to the high position they now occupy. A glance at the following complete course of studies will show how thorough the instruction is and how assiduously the student miost apply himself:
First Year.
first period.
Sfwpwork, — The pupil learns to file, holding the file with both hands; he makes first a steel ruler, then a T-square, and prepares roughly some parts of a tool (lathe, depthing tool, etc.)» which he has to finish later on, when he has acquired sufficient dexterity. As much as possible he is made to do, even from the beginning, work which will be of use to him later on, as it is more encouraging than having to file pieces of iron or brass without ulterior use; also a series of drills and tape, at first much larger than those used in watchmaking — this in order that the student may easily see for himself the correct shape to give to these tools. Practice on the foot lathe, first with the hand graver. The pupil makes a series of screws with shoulders, after a graduated design, adhering as much as possible to the exact dimensions. He next practices on the mandril, turning brass and steel pieces. The attention of the student is here drawn to the extreme importance of the shape and position of the cutter. The sharpening of the cutters is equally the object of similar demonstrations concerning the precautions to be taken so that the cutting edge should always be rigorously maintained in spite of successive sharpenings. The pieces made are always parts of tools which the student finishes when he is able to do so, or of which he delays the finishing until such time as he shall have acquired sufficient ability.
Theory,
Horology. — Preliminary ideas on the divers organs of a watch, their utility and their functions. The first part of the programme is intended to familiarize the pupil with the names of every part of the mechanism and their use, so that before passing to the complete study of all the mechanisms he may have a general idea of them.
MathemcUics. — Recapitulation of the arithmetical knowledge the pupil must possess whei* entering the school.
ifecAanic*.— Statics, equilibrium of forces, levers, etc.
Dravnng. Exercises in line drawing, geometrical figures, letters.
SECOND PERIOD.
Shopwork, — Making of a rough movement 18 lines. A drawing five times larger than the original is given to the pupil, the graduated marks of which have for base three points placed in a direct line, representing a rough work. This tracing is copied on a brass plate, and the bars on another, out of which they are cut and then filed to shape, the hollows turned, and the screws made. Screw holes are tapped either by hand or on the lathe. This method has replaced advantageously the method of pointing with the caliber used formerly. The caliber is a steel plate pierced wherever the plate of brass is to have a hole. It is applied on the brass disk which is to become the plate of the movement; then the holes for the screws are pointed. This way was found too easy for a school, where the pupil is to ieam how to measure exactly, and to know how to transcribe his measurements without any mistakes. The distances are given in tenths of millimeters. They are taken with a compass with movable points made specially for that purpose, and with a
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millimeter ruler of the kind used by architects. It is expected that this movement shall be well filed, that the screws shall be carefully made, but the greatest impor- tance is attached to accuracy of measurement. One-tenth of a millimeter lai^er is tolerated, but it must not be the least smaller. In the case of measures of distance half a tenth only one way or another is permitted. After this movement— which is composed only of the plate, bars, barrel without arbor, and the screws— the pupil makes a second one, 19 lines, for a lever, and proceeds in the same manner, except that in this case screws of commerce are used. He makes a third movement 12 lines; then he finishes a movement of a complicated watch, or else one of an English, American, Spanish, or other caliber.
Theory.
Horology, — Study of the pieces of support, plates, bars; comparative examination of the princijml calibers with bars, half plates, three-quarter plates; theory of adjustments, screws, rivets, feet.
Mathematics. — Principles of algebra, equations of the first degree. Elementary geometry having for its object the teaching of the pupil only the most important theorems — which they will have occasions to use in the future.
Elementary mechanics. — Cinematics — Application to mechanic* of equations of the first degree, and applications of mechanics to the solution of some problems of bodies in motion.
Drawing.
Drawings in section* of pieces of watch work seen from divers sides and laterally. Clean copies made to scale and lightly colored. Designs of movements of various sliapes and calibers. These designs differ essentially from what was formerly done and from anything done in similar schools. They must not only represent an object generally, but give the details which are necessary for the execution. They are designs identically the same as those made for the manufacture of machinery; besides which, every drawing must be done in a given number of lessons, and if not finished at the appointed time it is taken away and marked adversely.
THIRD PERIOD.
Keyless mechanism. — Here again the methods used in the.execution of the work are different from those formerly practiced. The turning is done on a foot lathe or on a mandrel, the pieces (barrel arbors, keyless wheels, stem-winders, transmission wheels, etc.) being fixed either in American chucks or between centers. Squai^es are cut in the lathe, and wheels are cut by the students themselves on the wheel- cutting machine. The cutters are selected by the master. Pupils up to this time not having been able to study the theory of depthing or the shape of the teeth, they give their attention solely to learning the practice of wheel cutting so as to obtain regular teeth, well cut and well centered. The polishing of the shoulders and of the rubbing surfaces is done either by hand, by bevel, or by the American wigwag. Polishing of chambers and hollows is done by means of iron disks on the lathe. The pupil thus makes the keyless mechanism for his four rough works, always working from graduated drawing.
Theory.
Horology. — Calculation of wheel trains, connection between velocities and num- l)er8, inquiry into the numbers to be given to wheels and pinions in order to obtain certain velocities.
Ktyless mechanism, — Study of the different kinds used, designs and theory of all the pieces of which it is composed.
Maihematvcs. — Algebra and elementary geometry.
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Elementartj mechanics.— DynBLinic study of forces and of their effect, work, active force, etc.
Draidng,
Designs of keyless mechanisms and of trains. Clean copies to scale of working drawings with flat tints in the sides and shaded.
SscoND Year.
FIRST PERIOD.
Shopivork, — Mechanical manufacture of the rough works by the help of machines and processes of the most perfected kind — 3 cylinder movements 18 lines; 3 lever move- ments 19 lines— with their keyless works. During this period the student must give his attention to automatic medical processes. He must learn how, by the ingenious dispositions of tools, one can insure rapidity of manufacture and render the quality of the work done to a great extent independent of the awkwardness of the work- man. The professor has again to demonstrate to the student that in many cases, and when the question is only to produce quantities, there is no need for compli- cated or costly machines, but that simple accessories, easy to make, can render great service. The finishing of the tools commenced in his first year is proceeded with.
Theory,
Horology. — ^Theory of depths, cycloids, development of circles, conjugated curves.
Mathematics. — Elementary algebra and geometry continued.
Physics and chemistry. — General principles and application of same to horology.
Dramng.
Illustrating the theories of depths, epicycloids.
SECOND PERIOD.
Shopioork. — Finishing train of wheels, the student first makes the train of his 18- line cylinder movement, using bought pinions, the turning of the pinions being done on the pivoting lathe, using shellac. In principle, pivoting on the pivoting lathe and with rouge is the only recognized method in order to obtain perfect work. How- ever, as it is better that the pupils should know several ways of attaining the same object, they are also taught pivoting with the bow, and reducing the pivots to size with the file and burnisher on the Jacot lathe. They finish by the above methods their two 18-line cylinder movements. The pinions for the above movements, as well as for the five preceding ones (total eight), are bought, and for four of them even the pinions and wheels are already riveted, in order that the student shall not pass too much time on train work. The wheels are rounded and the shape given to the teeth by means of wheel cutters. The shape is examined with the eyeglass in a good light, and the pupil must select his wheel cutter until he obtains a shape of teeth coinciding suflSciently with the designs he has made previously.
Since the introduction of the ey^lass with camera lucida, reproducing with the desired enlai^ement and to scale drawings the tetdh of wheels, one can make the student touch with the fingers the imperfections of depths, and by successive correc- tions obtain wheel teeth almost perfect, especially after they have l)een made to pass through the Ingold cutter, which gives them an epicycloidal form very difficult to obtain otherwise. Sizes of wheels and pinions are given by the drawings. How- ever, the pupil must learn how to use the proportional compaan, which by and by will render him great service, and for that object he is not to use those commercial com- passes, more or leas corrected and which are always inexact, but a normal compass
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accompanied by a table of c«>rrection8. For the la^t two trains, whi(;li are the nineteen- line levers, one of them handmade and the other machine ma<le, and lx»th destined for accurate timing, the student must make and cut the pinions. Tlie wheels are no longer divided and then cut to shape, but the shape which they must ultimately have is at once given by the cutter, then they are rivete<l on the lathe so as to avoid retouching with the wheel cutter, as this always more or less distorts the regularity of the division.
Theoiy.
Horology. — Horological depths, calculation of tables of correction, construction and usage of the graphics of depths, keyless ciepths, divers combinations. Study of the mechanism of complicated watches. MathemcUic*. — Principles of trigonometry. Physics and chemistry continued.
Dramng.
Designs of horological depths, with rounde<l or elliptical pinions, (-onical depth, crown depth, keyless depth. Designs of transmission of movements in the mech- anism of repeaters.
Third Ybab.
It is difficult at the end of the second year to divide the teaithing into regular {)eriods, because personal aptitude no longer allows of the uniformity of studies. Students who entered the school at the same time are at the end of two years hH^nsi- bFy distanced from one another, and as at that time they enter into the most difficult part of horological teaching, this becomes more and more ac;centuated, and the same work can not be expected from them.
Pupils well endowed can undertake complicated mechanisms; for others it would be giving them a task above their capabilities and would prolong indefinitely their stay at the school. Therefore the classification following serves as a base for intelli- gent pupils, while it is no longer rigorously maintained for others.
FIRST PERIOD.
Shopivork, — Complicated mechanisms. The pupil already possesses a complii^ated movement in the rough with keyless work and train wheels. The complicated mechanisms he must make from his own drawings. He is given a in()del movement, but to prevent his copying it servilely he is told to introduce a modification of some sort. Thus, the position of the push piece, of the calender, or some other piece will be changed; or, if a repeater is under consideration, either the general disposition or the times of rest of the striking, etc., will l)e modified. The pupil is told that when once his drawing is made he will not see the model any more and that he is to take his measures accordingly. Besides, he has already made designs of construction, whereby he has attaine<i a certain degree of proficiency, and if he is at all serious there are no grave interruptions to fear. He makes first of all the detached pieces, and sometimes, when it is a very complicated watch, he is given one or two le.sK advanced pupils to make for him a certain numlx^r of pieces from the designs he has worked out.
When all his measurements have Ixien well taken, the assembling of the different parts and the regulating of all the functions do not present great difficulty.
Theory.
Horology, — Theory of complicated watches. Repeaters, descriptions and designs of all details, construction of every mobile, trigonometrical cAlculati(ms of the dimen- sions, chronographs, independent center seconds, simple and ixjrixjtual calenders.
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Cogmoffraphy. — Measure of time, movements of the heavenly bodies. Bookkeeping.
Drarving.
Plans of complicated watches. As in this case the drawings must serve for the execution of the parts in the workshop, it generally happens that the pupil, instead of occupying himself with that task only a few hours a week, fixed by the regula- tions, gives entire days to that work until it is finished, so as to be able to execute the mechanism without hesitation or stoppage. For the purpose of verification, and before putting into execution, the pupil cuts out in paper every part to the scale of his drawings, then fixes them on a piece of cardboard on which he has previously marked all the places of the mobiles. He can then ascertain at once the errors or oniiseions which may have oi^curred during the making of the designs.
SECOND PERIOD.
Shopfvork. — Cylinder escapement. After having made a large cylinder (about an inch in length), so that he can see clearly for himself the shape that part is to be, the pupil makes the escapement of four eighteen-line movements, and afterwards another of twelve lines. It happens that for some pupils the transition from eight- een lines to twelve lines is too sharp; in that case they are given in the meantime a movement of fourteen lines. For all these escapements the pupils have to set the jewels themselves.
Theory.
Horology. — Escapement theory. Escapement of clocks of Graham, extension of that escai>enient to watches becoming a cylinder escapement, trigonometrical tracing and calculation of dimensions.
Cosmography and Iwokkeeping continued.
Drawing.
Tracing clock and cylinder escapements, designs of construction, drawing of a cylinder escapement complete, with bars, cock, end stones, etc., vertical and hori- sontal views.
Fourth Year.
first period.
Shopvxirh.-^ljeyeT escapement. Planting of three lever escapements nineteen lines, the first with covered pallets and four end stones, and the other two with vis- ible pallets and six end stones. The pupil has to make the forks and the jewel set- tings. Execution of an escapement nineteen lines complete with six end stones and screwed counterweight (fork in the two pieces), cutting of the escape wheel and of the pallets after the trigonometrical measurements made by the student, and . inscribed on metal by the method of Grossman's discs. The forms and the dimen- flions are again verified on the finished escapement by means of a micrometer made to the thousandth of a millimeter, which enables him to measure all distances, the angular lifts, the draws, the rests, the drops, etc. This escapement provided with a first-class balance will subsequently have to l^e accurately timed, and it is with this object that the best of the nineteen-line movements which the pupil possessed when he got in the escapement class has been kept. He then has to make the escapement of his complicated movement, and finally an esca^^ement of different construction, either English lever, duplex, or chronometer, making altogether eight escapements during his school course.
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Theory.
Lever escapement theory, tracing, determinations by trigonometry. Chronometer and duplex escapement, and summary descriptions of some older forms of e8ca|)e- ment, little used at present.
Drawing.
Deei^s of divers lever escapements; plan, horizontal and vertical, of a complete lever escapement with bars, endstones, etc. Drawing of the chronometer esc^^pr- ment.
SECOND I'ERIOD.
Shopuxfrk. — Examining, casing, and lastly finishing the eleven mo\'ementa the stu- dent has made at school, using the most expeditious means to angle the bars, cross the wheels, etc. The casing of the six movements, machine-made, is done on the interchangeable system.
ThcoTii.
Mathematical theory of timing, study of the lialanceand l>alance spring, calculation of the variations in rates produce<l by the escajieinent, frictions, faults of the l)alance spring or balance, etc.
THIRD PERIOD.
Shopworh. — Watch and chronometer timing, fitting of the balance spring, correc- tion of a balance out of truth, or out of poise. Accurate timing in different temper- atures and in all positions. The pupil must time at least one of his watches, so as to obtain an A certificate with mention ** Very satisfactory."
Theory. History of horology.
Special teaching.
Re])airB of clocks, repairs to watch cases, engraving of letters and monograms, conversions from Cylinder to lever escapements. These four specialties are for students who are destined for the watch jobbing trade. Decorative engraving of watch cases, balance making, making of balance springs, cutting, piercing, and finish- ing of jewels.
W^hen a student leaving school has fulfilled in a distinguished manner the above programme in its entirety, he receives a diploma of merit.
The foregoing programme of the school at Besangon shows how thoroughly the students arc educated. The course of studies in other schools vary somewhat according to the requirements of the locality. At the Geneva school five yeai-s are required to complete the course of studies. When we see the result of the training in horological schools, in the exhibits at the great expositions, we must come to this conclusion as an absolute fact — to insure our prosperity in the horological art in the future, we must have technical schools on the basis of those in Switzerland and France. In former expositions it was regretted that so few watches had any reliable record of their performance, so that their relative merits could be ascertained accuratel3\ Now, we have observatory certificates of various classes accompanying a very large
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number of watches that can be sold at a moderate price. There has been a great improvement in the time-keeping qualities of watches in the past fifteen years, and in the same time the prices have been consid- erably reduced. The advantages of adjustments in position, isochron- ism, and temperature are utilized to a greater extent, and scientific skill more appreciated and applied. As the course pursued at astronomical observatories is but little known, we give that at Kew, near London, as it resembles to some extent the others. The trials at the Geneva observatory, we understand, are more exacting.
DfiTAIIiS OF TRIALS TO WHICH WATCHES ARE SUBMITTED DURING RATING.
The trial of a watch entered for a Class A certificate occupies forty- five days, divided into eight periods of five days each and four intermediate and extra days, during which the watch is not rated. First period, watch in vertical position with pendant up at the temperature of the chamber (kept at 60^-^5° F.); second period, watch in vertical position with pendant to the right at the same temperature; third period, watch in vertical position with pendant to the left at the same temperature; fourth period, watch with dial up in the refrigerator at a temperature of about 40^ F. ; fifth period, watch with dial up at a temperature of about 66° F. ; sixth period, watch with dial up in the oven at a temperature of 90° F; seventh period, watch in a horizontal position with dial down at a temperature of 65° F. ; eighth period, same as the first, watch in vertical position with pendant up. The intermediate and extra days, during which the rate of the watch is not recorded, are at the commencement of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh periods, which are extended one day each for that purpose.
• Certificates are granted to watches as follows: To those which have undergone forty -five days test as specified and whose performance is such that, first, the average of the daily departures from the mean rate during the same stage of trial did not exceed two seconds in any one of the eight stages; second, the mean daily rate while in the pendant-up position differed from the mean daily rate in the dial-up position by less than five seconds, and from that while in any other position by less than ten seconds; third, the mean daily i-ate was affected by change of temperature to an amount less than one-third of a second per 1 ° F. ; fourth, the mean daily rate did not exceed ten seconds while in any position.
The words ''especially good" are attached to the certificate when the watch is awarded 80 marks and upward. In a notice of some of the exhibits will be found the observatory rates of a few very remarkable watches, which, by comparison with the foregoing requirements, some
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idea can be formed of their wonderful performance in time keeping. The great number, variety, and sizes of watches exhibited, with com- plicated mechanism, executed and finished with marvelous pei'fection, such as fly-back chronographs, split seconds, various formsof repeaters, with calendars and moon's phases and also toiirbillion watches, excited our most profound admiration. Here was the limit of human skill in the most delicate mechanism at the present time; to take them in detail and note their specific points of excellence would require a volume.
Fly -back chronographs and repeaters, with very bad principles of construction and cheaply made, have been sold to a large extent in this country, and the consequence is that their ownere will soon have only the value of the cases for their outlay. Even many of the best class of chronograph watches had a serious fault. They were expected to give accuracy to one-fifth of a second in starting and stopping, but when started the second hand would juuip backward or forward sometimes nearly as much as a second; the same fault also occurred when the chronograph was stopped. In fact, we seldom saw a fl}' back that did not have* more or less this fault. Now, it will be found that fly-back chronographs of even moderate pretensions have this fault to a great extent eliminated, thus showing that this system under improved con- ditions can be used to give accurate results.
In the diflJcult and laborious task of examining carefully the many exhibits we fully recognize the important services rendered by the foreign judges in this group, Mr. G. M. Rouge, the talented partner of Patek, Philippe & Co., Geneva, and Mr. Charles Emile Tissot, a member of the Swiss National Council, and manufacturer of the high- est class of complicated watches at Le Locle. Their high position as the leading exponents of the art in Switzerland gave assui-ance of good and impartial judgment in their awards to exhibitors. Our social relations were of the most pleasing chai'actcr and a cheerful remem- brance of the Exposition.
UNITED STATES.
The United States Naval Observatory exhibit: At Wjishington the Naval Observatory is one of the best, if not the best, equipped in the world, and the exhibit here showed to some extent the kind of work that is done there. It lias for its object primarily to determine accu- rately from time to time the positions of the sun, moon, planets, and stars for use in preparing the Nautical Almanac, upon which depends the very possibility of the art of navigation; to test, regulate, and perfect the (jhaiucter of chronometers, upon whose acicuracy the naval and merchant marine equall}' depend in the present age; to issue standard time to the public daily, which time is now needed as a neces- sity in all parts of the United States for the daily transaction of busi- ness, and for the satisfactory working of the time schedules on the
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railroads of the country, involving the safety of both life and prop- erty in land transpoi'tation; to fix accurately the longitude of various places b}' telegmph for geodetic and other surveys, and to furnish correct time when requested to other branches of the Government and scientific departments; to investigate the subject of magnetism and meteorology, as aids to navigation, and to distribute to vessels of the Navy instruments of precision for navigating purposes.
This exhibit was located in a small building between the Govern- ment building and the war ship. It should have had a place in the Government building, where it would have been seen by many more people and to a greater advantage. An astronomical clock made by the Seth Thomas Clock Company was used to obtain the true time for electrical ti'ansmission. A, small ratchet-toothed wheel was placed on the seconds arbor of the movement between the plates, which opened an electric circuit as each tooth passed a small spring which kept it closed. The fifty-ninth tooth was omitted, so that no signal was given out at this beat. A stud projected from the side of the sixtieth tooth, which acted on another spring, giving a signal at the sixtieth second only. The pendulum had a mercurial compensation, the jar containing about 40 pounds of mercury.
With this clock a chronograph was connected, in which a pen traces a spiral line on a sheet of paper placed on a revolving cylinder, the pen is controlled by an electro magnet, the circuit through which was not continuous but established at every second by the above clock, the magnet at the same time drawing the pen to one side marked the second. By means of this chronograph the time of any observation may be recorded and the beats of clocks compared, even when set up at widely separated stations, and so the difference of longitude between two places established. One such sheet of paper may contain the record of two hours' work. This chronograph is absolutely necessary in recording and transmitting true time, which at Washington is sent over 35,()O0 miles of wire to 70,000 clocks and 9 time balls.
A displa}^ of marine chronometers made by John Bliss & Co. and H. H. Heinrich, of New York, were remarkable productions, showing the high degree of excellence in manufacture attained by these makers, who furnish many chronometers to the Government. A marine chro- nometer by H. H. Heinrich had a balance with a double rim showing considerable ingenuity in its construction, the effective length of each rim being increased 50 per cent over those in ordinary use. Mr. Heinrich also made a display of the individual pieces of a marine chronometer in different stages of their manufacture, which were very interesting and instructive.
J. S. & J. D. Negus, of New York, and Wm. Bond & Son, of Boston, also exhibited marine chronometers showing excellent workmanship and careful attention to detiiils of construction. An English chro-
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nometer by JLoseby, purchased by our Government in 1850, has a mercurial auxiliary' compensation to the balance. Chronometers with Loseby's auxiliary compensation have had many trials at the Green- wich Observatory in competition with other chronometers and gave remarkable results, but they have not been adopted for geneml use. The construction of this auxiliary compensation part is too fi-agile to be relied upon in place of other well-known forms of auxiliary com- pensation, as the balance carries at the extreme end of each rim a small curved glass thermometer, the bulb of which is fastened to the fi-ee end of the rim of the balance, and the stem cui-ving towaixl the center of the balance.
A marine chronometer made by Domk. Eggert, New York, is the first one of home manufacture purchased by our Government. It was put in use in 1839 and has been in service afloat and ashore for twenty- eight years, and is used at the Observatory for ceilain purposes.
A chronometer b}^ J. S. & J. D. Negus, No. 1630, saved from the Jea7mette^ w«is found among their effects where the party perished. It has since made a cruise on the U. S. S. Omaha^ 1888-1891.
A chronometer by J. S. & J. D. Negus, No. 1366, was found at Newmans Bay, arctic regions, by Captain Nares, of the British arctic expedition. It had been left there by Captain Hall, of the arctic steamer Polnris, It was returned to our Government by the British authorities, and the rate papers given with it at the Royal Naval Col- lege, Portsmouth, December 3, 1876, showing it was going at the lute of one-tenth of a second per day, losing, being a very slight change from that given when it was issued to the Polaris expedition on June 28, 1871, during four years of which interval it was exposed to the inclemency of arctic winters at varying tempei-atures down to as low as 104° F. below the freezing point, a test unusually severe. Probably no other chronometer has ever been exposed to as great a degree of cold.
J. S. and J. D. Negus, No. 1684: The wheel work of this chronom- eter is made to break an electric current at the end of each second, and its beats can be registered on a sheet of paper by the usual chrono- graphic register. In this manner it is made use of with a transit instru- ment to record star transits or register the exact time at which any phenomenon occura.
The American Waltham Watch Company: The pavilion of this com- pany occupied a prominent location on Columbian avenue, and con- tiiined a display that attracted crowds of skilled artisans and admiring sight- seers. Two sides of this exquisitely furnished pavilioa were filled by a number of highly finished automatic machines for making parts of watches. The various stages through which the different parts were tjiken were explained t)y expert young ladies, who seemed to have their knowledge literally at their fingers' ends, and their lucid explana- tions were of the greatest interest to all around them. In operation
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were a vibrator and accessory instruments for timing hairsprings and balances; a staff machine for making balance staffs completely finished; a pinion-cutting machine operating on eight pinions at the same time; a drilling and tapping machine; a pinion polisher, which is a compound wigwag machine; a machine for squaring barrel arbors; a screw-mak- ing machine; a minute pinion machine; a screw-polishing machine; and a demagnetizing apparatus with an alternating electric current. All this complicated and highly finished machinery was automatic, the different movements positive, and the capacity for doing work wonderful. One operator can attend to four machines and accomplish the work of a dozen or more of the most expert workmen by the old methods.
These beautiful machines, constructed with so much ingenuity, so accurately made and highly finished, with their automatic movements so positive and effective, will leave a lasting and elevating impression on the minds of thousands of skilled artisans who will speak of them as the most interesting and wonderful of all the exhibits in the Expo- sition. To the left, on entering the pavilion, was a handsome model of the factory buildings at Waltham, made to a scale of 1 to 100, occu- pying a space of about 4 by 10 feet in area. Inside of the pavilion another view of the automatic machines could be obtained, as they were open to inspection on all sides. The product of the factory in 1873 was about 367 movements per day, the product of one day in 1893 by 3,000 operatives, was shown in large glass cases, and consisted of 2,000 movements, from the smallest to the largest, from the cheapest to the most expensive. In a separate case was a line of movements with the upper plate and balance cock made of rock crystal, showing great skill in lapidary work. A watch having the case and upper plate made of rock crystal, and the lower plate of variegated agate with jewels inserted in the usual way was a great novelty. While we were inspect- ing its skillful construction it suddenly blazed forth with light, show- ing minutely all its interior construction, producing a remarkable effect; the watch being nearly transparent was suddenly illuminated by an incandescent electric light beneath it, which rather upset our long-fixed ideas in regard to the manner a respectable watch should behave itself. A display of mainsprings, tempered so as to have one side harder than the other, thus imparting peculiar qualities of increased resilient power and elasticity, was of great interest. It is difiScult to realize that such a treatment should impart such remarka- ble qualities to springs, until one sees them coiled one way and then coiled in a reverse direction, when the difference is plainly apparent. An exhibit of watch dials also showed the progress made in their maaufacture.
The Breguet form of hairsprings used are constructed by a new method. The last turn of the spring is coiled around a solid core or
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''former," upon which the proper shape is given to the overcoil, and then hardened and tempered before being removed from the ''former," thus giving to every spring a uniform shape and isochronism that had previously been determined by experiment.
A case of balances showed beautiful workmanship, also an assort- ment of jewels in intermediate stages of manufacture. A collection of 625 antique watches, belonging to Mr. Evan Roberts, of Manches- ter, England, showing the progressive improvements made from the beginning of the art, was of exceeding interest. Many of them were once owned by the most eminent and celebrated persons in England during the past three centuries; 12 of them were for more than a century part of the famous Koskell collection in Liverpool. A metal- cased alarm watch that belonged to King Jamej> 1 was made by David Ramsey, London, about 1610. Oliver Cromwell's silver-cased alarm watch was made about 1648 by Bokel, London. John Milton's silver- cased watch, with raised points on the dial by which the blind poet ascertained the time, was made about 1660 by Bouguet, London.
Sir Isaac Newton's astronomical watch, with a shell-enameled case, was made in the seventeenth century by Girod, Paris. King George III, a cyclometer used on his carriage to measure distances traveled, was made by Gout, London. Robert Burns's watch, in three metal cases, was made in 1771 by Fowles, Kilmarnock A silver-cased wateh presented by Lord Nelson to Captain Rose was made by Delornie, Paris. Queen Elizabeth's metal and enameled-case watch was made by Jeubi, Paris, in the sixteenth century. William of Orange, a shell-cased watch, silver mounted, was made by Saville, London, 1656. John Calvin's hour-striking watch, in a metal-gilt oval cAse, was made in the sixteenth century. John Bunyan's watch, with seconds hand on plate, was made by Filter, London, sixteenth centurj\ Lady Jane Grey's silver-cased watch, with enameled dial, was made by Channes, sixteenth century.
The principal makers of London, Paris, Geneva, Vienna, Liverpool, and other cities were represented in the different constructions, which ranged from a watch with a horsehair balance spring and catgut for a chain to those of Ernshaw & Arnold; repeaters, alarms, and musical watches were numerous, and the enamel work on the c«ases was some- thing very remarkable, as also the magnificent repousse work on the 22-karat gold cases.
Tiffany & Co.: In the great Tiffany exhibit was a display of 19 watches, 17 and 19 lines, in gold cases, with gold and enameled dials, all in the highest style and finish and variety of design in casing; the casings, with invisible hinges and other artistic work, were particularly remarkable; 5 mmute repeaters and 5 five-minute repeaters, 17 to 19 lines; 4 split-second chronographs, and 13 ladies' watches, all showing great care and good principles in their manufacture. Small ladies'
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watches, from 8 to 12 lines, had their cases highly decorated with beau- tiful designs in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and enamels. A watch in the form of a red enameled strawberry, set with diamonds and green enam- eled leaves, was a gem; one in blue enamel with an urn in diamonds, another in emeralds and pearls, and another a 10-line open-faced, moon- stone Cupid and dove with ribbon and flower of diamonds, particularly attracted attention, being exquisite in design and workmanship. A globe clock, supported by a circular temple with twelve columns, was a very interesting piece of mechanism. The globe, about 14 inches in diameter, was made of silver, having on it a map of the world in deli- cate blue enamel; the equator was a silver band with the twenty-four houra engraved upon it, so that the time at any part of the world could easily be seen; revolving around the globe was a small sphere representing the moon, showing its phases; other arrangements showed the declination of the sun north and south of the equator, and various other astronomical phenomena, all being operated by mechanism in the temple-like base. An astronomical hall clock, showing the rela- tive positions of the sun and moon as seen from the earth, the seasons of the year, positions of the fixed stars, the hours of right ascension of the sun and moon, the tides, etc. A mantle clock, with Westmin- ster chimes, in an ebony case, with Labrador spar dial, and a skeleton clock in a gilt and glass case, with Westminster and Whittington chimes, the open work showing the interior of the movement. An astronomical hall clock in a Louis XV case, standing 8 feet high, had twenty -five silver and enameled dials. On the upper dial the sun and moon were shown in their apparent positions; below, in a line with the horizon, was a repi-esentation of the sea, indicating the tides at all hours; then two dials, the right one a pei-petual calendar, with the signs of the zodiac, the month, the date of the month, day of the week, leap year, and anno Domini; the other one, on the left, was a disk divided into twenty-four parts (meridian) and degrees east and west from Greenwich. On this dial thirty-one of the principal cities of the world were marked, with the time of day or night indicated by the Roman numerals marked on the main dial outside of the revolving disk at each place. Above these, two small dials indicated the year of Independ- ence and the Julian period; on the main dial were five other dials, indicating, respectively, the equation of time, or diflference between the sun and mean time; the chronological cycles, one having the golden numbers and the epact, and the other the dominical lettera and sun cycle. The remaining dials showed the local time, Washington time, Greenwich time, the declination by degrees north and south of the sun, and the declination of the moon; one of the wheels governing the latter make one revolution in nineteen years.
H. Conant, Pawtucket, R. I. : This eminent astronomer and math- ematician made an exhibit of five very complicated astronomical clocks;
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two made by Tiffany & Co. and the others by E. Howard & Co., from calculations and constructions furnished by himself. They were of great interest, particularly so to persons who had some knowledge of astronomy. An isochronal clock, with four pendulums, was a very complicated piece of mechanism, and required a careful examination to understand it^s working, and must have required a great amount of mental application to bring it to such a state of perfection. A differ- ential clock, showing the difference between solar and sidereal time, the course of the equinoxes, etc., described as follows:
This clock has been in operation more than four years, and is a duplex differential instrument. Duplex, because it is composed of two separate, independent clock movements, each of which will run of itself, as it has a w^eight and pendulum of its own, whether ite fellow is in motion or not. It is differential because the two move- ments are so connei'ted to a third train that a difference in their rates of speed induces motion in this thini train, which records said difference second by second a^ fast as any is established. The dials are three in number, and are furnished with hands for marking hours, minutes, and seconds. There is a supplementary hand to represent the moon in its mean right ascension. This dial shows at a glance the rela- tive positions of the heavenly bodies, and is really a map of the northern celestial hemisphere. It locates the points of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, and marks the summer and winter solstices, and always shows the absolute difference between solar and sidereal time, and therefore the constant right ascension of the mean sun.
The other clocks also showed a great amount of labor and thought in inventing their mechanical construction to produce the results required, and all together reflect great credit upon the assiduous, per- severing, and gifted astronomer who brought them into existence.
Waterbury Watch Company": The principal attraction in this exhibit was the century clock, which gave movement to a large number of automatics figures as working at their factory in Waterbury; also showing the primitive methods of old-fashioned watchmaking and other industries. The display of this company was very comprehen- sive, showing fully the duplex Waterbury watch, known all over the world as one of the lowest-priced productions now made to keep approximate time. Their latest productions are superior in quality to those first made, and can be wound in the usual length of time. The output is about 800 watches per day with 500 operatives.
The Ansonia Clock Company: This company claims to be the most extensive manufacturer of clocks in the world. It gives employment to 1,800 people, and its product ranges from the cheapest nickel clocks to the most expensive regulators and artistic timekeepers incased in onyx and gilded bronze. The very large display of clocks showed a great improvement in artistic forms for cases and movements of good qualit}^ over those in common use a few years ago, and at such mod- erate prices that everybody now can have a reliable and artistic time- piece. It was surprising to see how the desire for the beautiful in clock cases has been developed and adapted to movements of moderate
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cost within the last ten years, and the price at which they are sold will let them into all markets. The arrangement of this exhibit deserves a special notice, as it was all that could be wished for by anyone desirous of thoroughly examining the different styles and qualities of the goods manufactured by this company. An open court surrounded by little pavilions and high cases containing the different styles of clocks, and a pyramidal display, through the middle of the court, of their most elegant productions, made it one of the most attractive exhibits in the building.
Self -Winding Clock Company: The most conspicuous exhibit of this company was the tower clock in the center of the manufactures building. The tower was 160 feet high, 45 feet square at the base, and beautiful in design and construction. It was furnished with mechan- ism for striking the hours and quarters and opei*ating the hands on four 7-foot dials, 70 feet high from the floor, and a chime of nine bells weighing over 14,000 pounds. The hammers that struck the bells were raised by "sucking magnets." The large solenoids that surrounded the plungers could be operated by a 110 or a 220 volt current; the electrical contacts necessary were made by the clock and also by an operator at a keyboard. This arrangement was veiy successful in striking the hours and playing the chimes. The hands were turned by a small electric motor fixed level with the center of the dials and connected with an ordinary open-circuit battery controlled by a relay operated by a master clock situated in the pavilion 150 feet from the tower, by which every minute an electric current was sent to the motor in the clock tower, causing the hands to move forward one minute. The keyboard by which the chimes were played by an operator was also in this pavilion. In the elaborately constructed and beau- tiful pavilion was a very interesting and complete exhibit of all the apparatus used in the system of the company, such as master clocks, various movements showing the construction and theory of the self- winding and synchronizing apparatus, and a tableful of apparatus ased by the Western Union Telegraph Company in sending out the time. Many advantages are claimed for this system, and judging by its successful operation it is all that is claimed for it. The master clock in the pavilion synchronized 200 self-winding clocks throughout the Exposition . The Naval Observatory at Washington furnishes the exact time, and the Western Union Telegraph Company forwards it to every part of the country. Three minutes before noon all general business is stopped and direct communication made with the observatory. Precisely at 12 o'clock a single electric impulse announces the time all the way to the Pacific coast, and as our country is divided into belts of 15*^, or one hour each, exact time is furnished to all master clocks with- out any calculations being necessary. The master clocks then syn- chronize all the clocks that may be electrically connected with them.
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Over 2,000 clocks are thus kept to correct time in Chicago and 15,000 in all pails of the United States.
In self-winding clocks there is an ordinary tmin from the center wheel to the escapement. Ai ound the <5enter- wheel arbor is a spring about one-fourth of an inch wide and 6 feet long; its inner end is fastened to the arbor and its outer end to a spring barrel, which rotates freely on the arbor and is geared to a motor by an intermediate wheel and pinion. As the center wheel, driven by the unwinding of the spring, makes one revolution it brings up a loose arm carried on the center arbor until it closes the electric circuit; then the actiofi of a little motor rotates the barrel containing the spring one revolution, winding up just as much of the spring as has been required to run the ,clo!ck during the last hour. This action is repeated every hour. As a result of the frequent winding and reduction of friction it is claimed that the power required to run a clock on this s\\stem is only one forty-sixth part of that used in ordinary clocks. Two Leclanche cells furnish the electro-motive force.
Bundy Manufacturing Company, time recorders: In the beautiful pavilion of this company were a large number of clocks for recording a workman's time. On his entering the oflice he takes a key with his number off a rack, inserts it in the clock, and thus records the time he entered; with the same key he records the time of leaving and replaces the key on the first rack. The system worked in a very satisfactory manner, and no doubt will be very useful in recording the numl^er of hours between the time of his entering and leaving the office. In one corner of the pavilion was suspended in the air a plate of glass about 3 feet square having on it a dial and two hands; the minute and hour hands could be freely whirled around by the attendant's finger, and 3'et, after a short time, the hands would settle to a position show- ing the correct time. It excited considerable curiosity and mystified all who saw it. In all probability a watch movement was concealed in the short end of each hand and made so that it would revolve on its center pinion, the end of the pinion being fastened to the hand, the movement in the minute hand making a complete revolution around its center pinion in one hour. In the hour hand the movement would turn completely around its center pinion in twelve hours. At 12 o'clock the heavy side of each movement would be at the extreme end of the short arm of each hand; at quarter past 12 the movement in the minute hand will have turned 90^ and the hand will be balanced or in a horizontal position; at half past 12 the heavy side of the movement will be at its nearest point toward the center pivot on which the hands are mounted, and consequentl}' the long end of the hand will be the heaviest and point to half past 12. Thus the movements by the power of their mainsprings will have the position of their center of gravity moved toward and from the pivot on which the hands revolve.
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knd thus make the hands turn gradually around, keeping approxi- mate time.
The Newman Clock and Manufacturing Company made a large exhibit of clocks specially made for factories, offices, etc., to record the rounds and presence of watchmen at certain localities. They were well made and capable of giving satisfaction in theii' performance. Small rudely constructed wall clocks with wooden wheels, a crown or esctapement wheel, a verge, and a balance consisting of a straight bar with a weight hanging at each end, all made in the simplest manner possible, were quite a curiositv, as they showed how the first clocks with wheels were made, going back nearly a thousand years ago, long before the pendulum was used. They cost but little, very little, and would be an attractive piece of mechanism in any one's house.
H. Muhr's Sons, watch cases: This extensive establishment employs over 600 workmen, and have an average output in gold, gold-filled, silver, and nickel of 5,000 cases per week. In their pavilion about 500 designs in cases wfere exhibited, and they make them in over 2,000 different styles. They make three grades of cases; 14-karat, war- ranted for twenty years, 10-karat for fifteen years, rolled plate and raised gold cases with applied work in heavy gold on the oater side. Their good workmanship and careful attention to details, elegant designs with cheapness in price, place them in the front mnk in this, industry. The stock they use in filled cases was shown having a center of case metal with a plate of gold hard soldered on each side and then rolled into proper shape, showing that the cases were really plate work and not simply heavily gilded.
The Keystone Watch Case Company: This company had an elegant pavilion, furnished in white and gold, near the center of the building. The first attraction was a huge watch of good workmanship 4^ inches wide and 7 inches high, having a solid silver case weighing 5 pounds 7 ounqes, containing an 18-size Elgin movement. The display of 14 and 10 karat gold cases, gold-filled cases, silver and nickel cases, was very extensive, showing the complete manner in which all their work is made, and the artistic style adopted in all their different sizes and qualities of cases. Gold-filled cases is an important invention of late years and are used to a great extent. The company claims an output of 2,000 cases per day with 1,750 operatives, and to be the largest watch-case factory in the world. An exhibit of about 60 antique watches was very interesting, showing the various forms, qualities, and styles of workmanship in this art many years ago.
The Ray Watch Case Company: In this exhibit they did not display a full line of goods manufactured by them, but principally to show the perfection to which photominiature work on the inside of watch cases and caps has attained. The photominiatures on the cases exhib- ited were interesting specimens in this art, showing heads and groups
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of prominent and well-known people; in some instances the original photographs and their reproductions on the cases were seen side by side, showing the accuracy of the work. They also exhibited hand- somely decorated cases with designs in raised gold, showing good work.
Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company, Worcester, Mass. : A very extensive exhibit was made by this company of mainsprings for clocks and watches manufactured by their new methods. Prior to 1884 many attempts were made to make mainsprings from rolled wire, but this class of stock was not adopted by any clock manufacturers until 1885. About this time Mr. C. E. Terry, of the Terry Clock Company, Pittsfield, Mass., concluded to adopt it, believing it would make the best spring if properly made up. After many experiments by the Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company, they, in 1888, started a clock-spring department, engaging with Mr. Terry to build it up. At that time no clock company had adopted this class of springs to any extent, but to-day there is no clock manufacturer in this country but prefers the flat-wire spring to any other, and all have adopted it. The flat-spring plant of the Washburn & Moen Compan}'^ is the largest in the world, and the amount turned out greater than was ever befoi-e produced in one place. These springs have been adopted for every purpose where a clock spring can be used. The manager of one of the largest dock manufactories lately stated that the W^ashburn & Moen flat-spring wire had made the most complete and succe^ful revolution of anything relating to clocks that he knew of, and that it is astonishing how quickly it was done. In addition to the flat springs, they make all kinds of clock and watch wire, such as clock pinion, pendulum, balance shaft, hairspring, verge, bell, gong, and pallet wire of charcoal and Bessemer grades, in all sizes. Their product of penduliun-spring steel, some of which is one-fourth of an inch wide by only 0.002 of an inch thick, tempered, polished, and bronzed, is pronounced the best ever put upon the market. In our examination we noticed particularly the peculiar fibrous nature and extreme elas- ticity of the steel after being manufactured.
Nicholson File Company, Providence, R. I.: In the magnificent dis- play of this company was a full line of files specially made for clock and watchmaking, pivot, screw head,* burnishing, square, triangular, needle, round, flat, and files specially made for filing up balance wheels — in fact all the different kinds required in this industry. The files are cut by machinery on the increment principle, and their fine 8-inch equaling file requires 424 blows to the inch, which, being doubled, gives about 180,000 tooth points to the square inch of sur- face and forms probably the finest file ever cut. The excellent quality of thciije files are widely and favorably known, showing the surprising progress made in this manufacture. The making of such small files is a new industry in this country deserving extensive recognition and support ^ ,
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SWITZERLAND.
The exhibits from this country were located on Columbian Avenue and displayed in three pavilions. One was occupied by the Genevese manufacturers, another by Patek, Philippe & Co., and the third by the watchmaking centers of Le Locle, Chaux de Fonds, Neuchatel, St. Smier, La Neuveville, Les Bois, La Ferriere, Les Brenets, Bienne, Le Sentier, Renan, and Basel.
Watchmaking commenced in Geneva about the year 1587, but it i^s claimed that there are two other places where first developed, the mountains of Neuchatel and the Jura Vandois. It has gradually increased and become a national industry, having an annual sale of 6,000,000 watches produced by 50,000 workmen. Their variety in size and design amounts to thousands, comprising all gi^ades and from the smallest gem watch to the most expensively decorated in jewels, inclosing movements so wonderful and complicated in construction that only persons with a thorough knowledge of the art have the capacity to fully appreciate their great merits. Their exquisite designs in casing, jewel incresting, engraving, and enameling are far in advance of an}'^ other nation.
While looking over the exhibits we were so impressed with their magnificence, artistic beauty, and great mechanical skill shown, that only an attempt can be made in stereotyped expressions to give some idea of them, for they baffle description, so far does language fail to convey to the mind a knowledge of the beautiful that can only be acquired through the sense of vision. Great attention is given to the accurate performance of their watches, many of them being rated and tested before being sent out to compete with watches of other makers at the various trials at the observatories. It is somewhat a novelty to see a watch selling at a moderate price accompanied by an observatory certificate, but here we had them in abundance.
In regard to their immense progress in the past fifteen years, it will be inquired, How has it been accomplished ? Nine watchmaking schools, supplied with the latest chronometrical and mechanical improvements under the teaching of their most expeit masters, contribute to the present reputation of their productions. Probably the first of these is the school at Geneva, where a complete course of practical and theoretical instruction extends over five yeare, to which pupils come from all parts of the world. In connection therewith, a special school has recently been opened where mechanics are practically taught through a course of three years. First year, lower division, work without the aid of machinery; second year, middle division, work with the aid of machinery; third year, upper division, instruments of great precision. Theoretical instruction is given simultaneously in chemistry, physics, technical drawing, and mathematics.
At the observatories in Geneva and Neuchatel the different makers
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can have their watches subjected to trials in heat and cold, in different positions, and for isochronism, and are given certificates according to their performance. At the (ieneva Observatory a watch to be tested in the highest or first class 4ias to undergo a severe ordeal, and no watch can obtain a certificate unless it faithfully performs in all the stipulated conditions. About two 3'ears ago this observatory imposed more severe conditions, and, according to the reports issued by foreign observatories, none can approach the marvelous results now obtained at the Geneva chronometer competitions, and recorded annually in the report of the Geneva Society of Arts. Their horological societies are very active, always discussing and examining any new improve- ments in the construction of watches, and receive the aid of their com- mercial and scientific institutions and periodical publications, all combining to advance and perfect their knowledge in this art.
Patek, Philippe & Co. : The productions of this firm, as displayed in all the great expositions, have been of a very high character, always securing the highest awards, receiving at Paris in 1889 the grand prize and other honors. At the Geneva Observatory, m 1893, out of 49 awards to different makers, 20 were given to this firm, who also obtain there every year the first prizes at the yearly timing compet- itive trials. The use of machinery in making interchangeable and other parts is carried as far as possible, and the most skilled artists are secured to fill the various positions of adjusting, escapement mak- ing, jeweling, engraving, enamel painting, case making, and all the other departments where great personal ability is required. All this display has a special, highly artistic character, which could be seen at a glance. This, combined with the best principles of construction, great attention to details, high finish, and accurate performaTice, has given this firm a richly deserved and world-wide reputation. As Mr. G. M. Rouge, one of the partnera in this house, was a member of the inter- national board of judges, this display was, according to custom, ''hors concours," and did not appear in the list of awards. In an elegant pavilion was displayed nearly 300 watches and movements, embracing all their calibers from 6 to 20 lines in size. Among them were 4 chrono- graphs, 16 to 19 lines in size; 8 split seconds, 16 to 19 lines; 4 split seconds, repeating hours, quarters, and minutes, with perpetual calen- dars, 16 to 19 lines; 5 repeating hours and every 5 minutes, 14 to 19 lines; 12 repeating hours, quarters, and minutes, 9 to 19 lines. The 9-line repeater is said to be the smallest minute repeater ever made, a 10-line minute repeater being the smallest exhibited at Paris in 1889. A superbly finished tourbillon, with chronometer escapement and independent seconds with superimposed train, were remarkable pro- ductions. An open-face watch, 6 lines in diameter, with lever escape- ment, was a marvelous chef d'ceuvre, showing the extreme limit in smallness that has been attained in this class of watches.
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The 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 line sizes with lever escapements embraced a large number of highl}^ finished watches, having cases decoi-ated with paintings on enamel of great artistic merit, diamonds, rubies, pearls, etc., in such rich and elegant designs that a mere descrip- tion of them here would fail to convey a correct idea of their great elegance and exquisite workmanship. The chatelaines belonging to the watches were also of the same high character in design and work- tuanship. The 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 line watches, in great variety of style and design in movements and cases, could only be fully appre- ciated after a careful examination of their points of beauty and dura- bility^. Eight of these watches had first-class certificates from the Geneva Astronomical Observatory that showed some astonishing per- formances in keeping time, two of them having gained the firet prize at the Geneva Observatory competitive trials in 1892. The observa- tory certificate for watch No. 91219, a 19-line ancre, gave as follows:
Temperature 140.88, vertical pendant up ,
Temperature. 16°. 40, vertical pendant right. .
Temperature, 15°. ?2. vertical pendant left
Temperature, 1^.20, horizontal dial up, cold. . .
Temperature. 12°.70, horizontal dial up ,
Tcijiperature, 33^.14, horizontal dial up, heat.,
Temperature, 120.42, horizontal dial down
Temperature, 12PM, vertical pendant up
Average of 5 days.
+8-.90 +4*. 78 + 2.92 + 1.64 + 2.80 + 1.84 + 3.64 + 3.94
Sum of errors.
0.4 1.2 0.0 2.4 2.2 1.2 .8 .6
Mean variation of daily rate db0".22, compensation variation for 1° C. db0'.04, all of which is certainly a wonderful perfonnance. A 17-line watch repeating the hours, quarters, and minutes with pusher on the pendant, metal bell, gold antique open -face case, chased and repouss6, double gold case representing the Elopement of Europa, from a picture by S. Le Clerc, was a remarkable production. A very curious and interesting exhibit of 17 antique watches from the collec- tion of Mr. Amerigo Ponti was in the front case. Among them was a movement in the shape of a cross inclosed in a crystal case. It had a fusee and chain, but no hairspring or regulator, and was running. This beautiful piece of mechanism was made by Jean Rousseau, great grandfather of the famous philosopher, born 1606, died 1684, and is mentioned in his will of May 13, 1684. Another watch with a balance and hairspring in a tulip-shaped case, the sides being crystal, by the same maker, was constructed during the latter part of his life. A large watch with striking mechanism, "Nuremberg Egg," without haii^spring, being regulated by means of pins, fusee with a string in place of a chain, date about 1550, was a great curiosity. A frame suspended in the pavilion contained 19 gold, 30 silver, and 16 bronze medals, decorations of the Legion of Honor and from the Pope, that . received awards for the excellence of their manufacture. COL EXPO— 02 57
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Paul D. Nardin, Locle: A wat<*h very remarkable in appearance, that was awarded the grand prize at Paris in 1889, first attracts atten- tion in this exhibit. It had a double case, the inside one being gold and the outer one of oxidized silver, containing a very high grade 20-line movement, repeater, split seconds, minute register, with a first-class certificate from the Neuchatel Observatory. It was too large to be carried, being 4:^ inches high by 3 inches broad and designed for a presentation or souvenir watch. The art work on the outside of the case was bold and grand in design and execution. On one side of the case were two figures. Fame crowning Labor; on the other side a representation of the industrial arts, with a bust of Minerva. The side scrolls were surmounted by tigers' heads, and above these two infant boys, all executed by chisel work in bas-relief and valued at J2,000. Two superb marine chronometers elegantly cased, having a daily variation of db OMl and db 0''.14, respectively, show the remarkable degree of perfection that has been attained in this important industry by this house. One of these is intended to be used wnth a pen chrono- graph, to register seconds by electricity, the chronometer being con- structed so as to make electrical contacts every .second. In a report of the Neuchatel Observatory we find that in a trial of 12 chronome- ters of this kind the mean difference between their general dail}^ rates and that shown by them when establishing an electric current every second was only 0".22, and for several of them the difference was imperceptible. A remarkably successful solution of this problem in mechanics. An improvement in winding chronometers, by which they can be wound without turning them over and winding through the back, is also of importance. Two tourbillon watches, having a new winding system, were superb specimens of the finest workman- ship. A collection of about two dozen watches with observatory certificates, comprising repeaters of all kinds, split seconds with minute registers, and perpetual calendars, and also plain time watches, were of the highest class in manufacture, and reflect great honor upon this house.
A. Golay-Leresche & fils, Geneva: In the front case of tne Geneva pavilion was a displa}^ of about 300 of their most expensive, compli- cated, and highlj' finished watches, comprising repeaters of all kinds, split seconds, chronographs, independent seconds, and their various combinations; tiny watches as small as 6 lines, in cases of many fanci- ful designs, decorated all over with precious stones, painted enamels, and engraving. It would be a diflicult ttisk to enumerate the great merits of each individual piece and draw conclusions as to their rela- tive merits, as all seemed so perfect in design, beauty, and mechanical excellence, sustaining fully the reputation this house has had for the past fifty years for the excellence of their productions, as attested by - the many medals they have received from the great expositions. A
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small musical casket with a little watch in front, and decorated with exquisite workmanship, was a surprising wonder. On touching a spring its cover would suddenly open and a little singer with the brilliant plumage of a humming bird would fly up, warble forth its exquisite song with twittering bills and fluttering wings, as if it were truly a living bird; then it would quickly disappear, and the cover automatically close the casket. Value, $1,700. A lily about 3 inches long, incrusted all over with diamonds, would, when its center was touched, fall apart and disclose a wee watch. An old silver casket, having on its sides a timepiece and five enamel paintings of great merit, representing " Courtship," "Engagement," and "Marriage," was a superb piece of artwork, valued at $1,300. Prize medals at Berne, 1857; London, 1851 and 1862; Melbourne, 1880; Paris, 1855, 1878, and 1889.
E. Wirth, Geneva, made a display of complicated watches of exceed- ing merit, such as repeaters of all kinds, fly-back split seconds, chro- nographs, independent seconds, and their various combinations; chro- nometers with Geneva Observatory certificates, also watches with the most artistic decorations in diamonds, pearls, rubies, and enamel paintings on the smallest of fanciful cases. This is the old house of Doufour & Co., who received the highest awards at Vienna, 1873; Paris, 1878; Melbourne, 1881; and was^hors concours" at Paris, 1889, one of the firm being vice-president of the jury. They also received the third prize at the Concours de Reglage in 1892.
L. Bachman, Geneva, successor 4jo Fritz, Piquet & Bachman, made a very comprehensive exhibit of over 90 watches, man}'^ of them hav- ing first-class certificates from the Geneva Observatory. Specially noticeable were a lever watch with 42 jewels, split seconds, fly back, and minute recorder; a lever watch with 36 jewels, minute repeater, fly back, and split seconds, that took the prize at Geneva in 1890, and a 31-jeweled lever, quarter repeater, with perpetual calendar. Then followed an extensive line of repeaters, quarter and split seconds, fly backs, astronomical and calendar watches, and very small watches in flowers, insects, and fanciful cases, decorated with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, pearls, etc., in the most exquisite designs; also chatelaines of remarkable workmanship, designed in the style of the watches they belonged to. Watches of great precision, and the various combina- tions of repeaters, split seconds, perpetual calendars, etc., are a special manufacture by this house. The following record taken from an observatory certificate will show the accurate performance of one of his watches: Pendant up, 5*.38; pendant right, 5".50; pendant left, 3'. 02; dial up, 5'.24; dial down, 5". 60; pendant up, 5". 02. Silver medal at Paris, 1876; gold medal, Melbourne, 1880; diploma of honor, Zurich, 1885; gold medal, Antwerp, 1885.
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Alcide Baume, Le Bois: This exhibit, although small in number, was great in merit, showing the wonderful degree to which watches have been perfected in correct timekeeping. A gold *'tourbillon" chronometer, No. 103018, had a class A certificate from the Royal Observatory at Kew, England, giving it 91.9 marks out of a maximum of 100, and the indorsement "especially good." Its performance is claimed to bo the nearest to perfection ever yet attained by any watch, it having received the highest award ever granted by this observa- tory. According to the certificate, its performance under the different conditions to which it was subjected was as follows: Mean daily rate, pendant up, 0".8; pendant right, 0*.6; pendant left, 0'.7; dial up, O'A; dial down, 0'.2; mean variation of daily rate, 0".26; mean change of rate for l'^ F., 0*.03; difference between extreme gaining and losing rates, 2". 5; marks awarded for daily variation of rate, 34.8; for change of rate with change of position, 39.3; for temperature compensation, 17.8; total, 91.9. A watch similar to the above had a class A Kew certificjate with 87.5 marks and indorsed " especially good." An hour, quarter, and minute repeater, split second, and minute-recording chronograph, had a class A certificate with 70.2 marks. A highly finished movement with a class A certificate had 81 marks. A split second, minute-recording chronograph and a gold minute repeater were also of high-class manufacture; also a variety of other movements, some with class A certificates. Baume & Co. have held the first posi- tion for complicated watches at the Kew Observatory since 1887, with a split second, minute-recording chronograph which was awarded 85.1 marks and the indorsement ''especially good." Up to the present time this has not been surpassed. This house has received medals awarded for excellence of manufacture at all expositions in which they participated. The general construction, finish, and performance of these watches is very creditable and deserves the attention of all who appreciate superior excellence in timekeeping.
Jules Alfred Jurgensen, Locle: The watches of this exhibit are of the Jules Jiirgensen, Copenhagen, type of manufacture so well known for the past fifty years, and now continued by his son at Locle. Ten- minute repeaters are a new construction by this house; being the first of this class ever made they attracted considerable attention as some- thing unique. A twenty-four hour watch called " Cosmopolitan," had two sets of hands, one set making a revolution in twelve hours and the other in twenty-four hours. There were 32 watches with observatory certificates, comprising plain lever, chronometers, repeaters, chrono- graph with one-fifth second fly backs, split seconds with minute regis- ter, and seconds with fifths of a second hand on same axis, all showing that excellence with which this name has so long been associated. We noticed that the long lever so characteristic of this watch from its introduction is still retained.
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Zen tier freres, Geneva: This firm made a grand exhibit of compli- cated watches, such as minute repeaters, fly -back split seconds, chrono- gi-aphs and their complications, chronometers with certificates from the Geneva Observatory, chatelaine watches, watches in finger rings, and other fancifully designed cases, all highly decollated and incrusted with diamonds, rubies, pearls, and painted enamels. The most atti*act- ive was a 10-line lever with the dial partly surrounded by a crescent of diamonds and a crescent of rubies; on the case was a Macaw formed of diamonds, with ruby eyes, and gold feet and beak. A beautiful scroll of diamonds and rubies formed the pin, and a chain suspending the watch had alternate links of diamonds and rubies. A hairpin in which a small watch movement caused a large diamond star to revolve was a gorgeous piece of work. They were awarded at Vienna, 1873, a medal for merit; Paris, 1878, a silver medal; Paris, 1889, a gold medal; Geneva Astronomical Observatory, 23 medals, 4 of which were first prizes; National Academy at Paris, 1884, a gold medal, and in 1890 diploma of honor: also at Paris, 1878 and 1889; Melbourne, 1881, and Zurich, 1883.
Ernest Francillon & Co., St. Imier: With this firm we have another grand prize at Paris in 1889, also a large number of medals attesting to the excellence of their productions. They have had for a long time a world-wide reputation with their "Longines" watches, which have given such general satisfaction at a moderate price. They use auto- matic machinery to a large extent in their factory, leaving only the escapement to be made by hand, making their own cases in gold, sil- ver, oxidized silver, oxidized steel, and enamels, decollated with pre- cious stones. They are prominent among the most progressive manu- facturers of Switzerland, and their products go everywhere. Their exhibit of 16 and 18 line movements deserves much praise, and 2 large gold watches bearing in colored enamels the coats of arms of the Republic of Mexico, and the Argentine Republic, show their skill in this kind of work.
Eugene Cl^mence-Beurret, Chaux-de-Fonds, made a great display of exceedingly small watches in bracelets, in the form of swans, pad- " locks, beetles, butterflies, and globes incrusted with diamonds, rubies, pearls, and enamels, in the most artistic manner. A large number of repeaters, split seconds with calendars, chronographs, and their com- binations, plain time watches of all sizes and excellent manufacture, with cases decorated in the highest style of the art, altogether mak- ing a gorgeous and highly meritorious collection.
Maurice Ditisheim, Chaux-de-Fonds: An immense watch about 40 lines in diameter, with an exquisitely painted Limoges enameled dial, made by Alfred Meyer, was a very novel production. The painting rep- resented Venus crowning Saturn, the case being made of oxidized steel. A magnificent display of all kinds of repeaters, some automatically
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striking the hours in passings split seconds, fly backs with calendars and minute registers, watches from 12 to 20 lines with observatory certificates, and also watches with automatic mechanical figures. A large number of the most beautiful gem watches from 6 to 14 lines, having lever and cylinder escapements and cases of the most unique designs, profusely and artistically decorated with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, pearls, and painted enamels, were a great attraction.
Piquet, Gruillaume & Co., Le Sen tier, made a small but very inter- esting display of 5 of their superb, complicated watches of the highest grade, such as a 17-line watch with a quarter-seconds recorder, split seconds and minute recorder, and minute repeater. In their new system the split seconds is isolated, so that it may not load the mechan- ism when not in action. They are the sole makers of Piquet's split and the lightning 4th and 5th split second and minute recorder, for which they claim great merit. A 10-line split seconds and one-fourth second was an exquisite piece of work; also other combinations of repeaters striking automatically the hours in passing, perpetual calen- dars, split seconds, and recorders.
Bor^ & Courvoisier, Neuchatel: In this exhibit were 65 watches ranging from 10 to 20 lines in size, 18-line and 10-line movements being a special manufacture, many of these having certificates from the observatory at Neuchatel; repeaters automatically striking the houra in passing, chronographs, calendar, and plain watches, a number of chatelaine and other tiny watches, with cases beautifully decorat-ed. A broaze medal from London, 1862; a bronze medal from Philadel- phia, 1876; a gold medal from Paris, 1878, and a silver medal from Chaux-de-Fonds, 1881, gave assurance of the high character of their manufacture.
H. Redard & fils, Geneva: This house, founded in 1844, made a magnificent display of 50 watches of excellent quality, comprising repeaters of all kinds, split seconds, fly backs with and without per- petual calendars, first -class watches with lever escapements, chrono- graphs with minute recorder, and a large number of small watches in fanciful cases and bracelets, decorated with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, pearls, and painted enamels in the most exquisite styles attainable in the art.
Jacoby & Co., Geneva, exhibited a collection of chronometers, hour, quarter, and minute repeaters, chronographs, lever watches of the best quality with first-class observatory^ certificates, 'sweep-second watches and ladies' watches in great variety in bracelets and fancy cases, also nonmagnetic watches for general use.
Paul Matthey-Doret, Locle: With all the watches made by this house certificates of their rates of running are given, the trade-mark is "• Maisonette." Something new in the way of an intermittent strik- ing armngement was shown in a repeater, where the quarters striking
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can be switched off. A 13-line repeater with elegant work, a chrono- graph with one-fourth of a second hand, a repeater automatically striking the hours in passing, and a number of large and small watches of excellent construction and finish, were deserving of much praise.
C. Degallier, Geneva: A magnificent collection of chatelaine and bijou watches, small watches in bracelets, tiny globes, and other fanci- ful designs, all highly decorated with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, pearls, and painted enamels in the most excellent workmanship, watches of the highest quality with first-class observatory certificates, repeat- ers, split second, fly backs, and other complicated watches, all showing fiirst-class workmanship.
Marius Lecoultre, Geneva: In this exhibit were highly decorated watches of great beauty with painted enamels, diamonds, rubies, and pearls; chatelaine watches in the form of globed and other fanciful designs, bracelets inclosing the smallest of watch movements; repeaters of various constructions, split seconds, and a line of first-quality lever watches. A special caliber of this maker has an independent center- seconds provided with a double train which can be converted into a fly-back chronograph. It is called an independent-seconds chrono- graph and might be used to a great advantage in timing the speed of horses. All this display fully sustains the reputation of this house for the past fifty years for excellence of manufacture in productions of the highest grades.
Louis Kozat, Chaux de Fonds: This house made a display of eight- day watches, repeaters that strike automatically the hours in passing and at will, chronographs with minute register, repeaters with chro- nograph and minute register, and plain watches; also very small watches, from 8 to 13 lines, with fanciful cases artistically and richl}"^ decorated with diamonds, enamels, and pearls. Having obtained twelve consecutive Kew Observatory (class A) certificates is a guaranty of the time-keeping qualities of his productions.
Droz-Jeannot fils, Brenets: In this exhibit were tourbillon watches with fine chronometer escapements; fine chronometer movements with first-class certificates from the Neuchatel Observatory; a line of move- ments to fit American cases. Their movements were well jeweled, having a jeweled barrel and an arrangement to prevent overwinding; a number of sweep seconds, and other finely jeweled watches, showing the excellent quality of their productions. They are the patentees of a "jeweled stem-winding mechanism," which they showed in several movements.
Z. Penenoud & fils, Chaux de Fonds: This was a collection of 18 exquisite gem watches, from 8 to 13 lines in size, with cases in different styles, highly decorated with designs in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and enamels; also watches very large in size, running eight da3\s, all show- ing exceedingly fine workmanship and good principles of construction.
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Gindrat-Delachaux, Chaux de Fends, make a specialty of calendar watches, showing the day of the week, of the month, and phases of the moon through openings in the dial. Fifty watches, in 16, 17, and 18 line sizes, showed the various grades characteristic of their man^^facture.
Arthur Graizely, La Ferriere, made an exhibit of 72 eight-day watches in all styles and sizes. The lower part of the dials were cut away, showing the movements of the balance. They are a specialty with this house, and were very attractive.
G. Jeanneret &E.Vrocher, Chaux de Fonds: This was a remarkable exhibit of complicated watches of all combinations, with observatory certificates of their performance. A 14-line minute repeater, chiming every quarter hour, was a gem in horology; a 20-line minute repeater, with chronograph and perpetual calendar, chimed every quarter hour; a 20-line minute repeater, with automantons, watches in very small globes, and a number of very small bijou watches, decorated with enamels and pearls, all showing extiuordinary skill and talent in this diflScult kind of work.
P. Prunner-Gabus, Locle, exhibited a 20-line watch with chronome- ter escapement, and having 53 ruby and 2 sapphire jewels. All the screws in the bridges and pillow plate, and screws for the jewels, were capped with rubies. This work gave rather a pretentious appear- ance to the movement, but showed the extent to which the skill of a lapidary can go. The first impression was that the whole screw was made of a ruby, thread and all, but upon a close inspection it could be seen that the inibies were coverings cemented on the heads of ordi- nary screws.
Albert Jeanneret & freres, St. Imier: In this display a beautifully engraved case had on one side the arms of the United States in col- ored enamel, and an oxidized silver case with gold lions rampant, bearing between them a shield, were highly artistic pieces of work; a large number of watches of various grades and constructions, from the cheapest to the most expensive, from the smallest to the largest, and a line of lever watches showed good workmanship.
Weill & Co., Chaux de Fonds, showed 37 watches, embracing split seconds and other complicated mechanisms, some of them having seven small dials about the size of an ordinary seconds dial painted on a large dial, so as to show the time at London, Paris, St. Petersburg, Chicago, Washington, Calcutta, and San Francisco. The work was well made, and their constructions will give satisfaction to their customers.
Ch. Couleru-Meuri, Chaux de Fonds, made a display of 38 calendar watches, having dials elaborately ornamented with colored enamels, the most of them 18 lines, cased in silver and oxidized steel, to be sold at a low price, also 3 veiy large watches, 36 lines, about 3 inches in diameter. A very useful watch for the blind was shown. It had but one hand and a nickel dial, and had 12 projecting pins, one at each
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hour. At a particular hour a corresponding pin would drop and the hour known by the absence of a pin.
Wuilleumier f reres, Renan, exhibited self-winding watches in great variety, cased in gold and silver. They were wound up by the act of walking about fifteen minutes. They were constructed on the well- known pedometer principle, invented more than a hundred years ago, but now their manufacture being revived they are quite a novelty.
Fritz Chatelain, Neuchatel, manufactures watch cases that contain pedometers. They can be carried in the vest pocket, and by means of his patent regulating wheel record the exact distance, it is claimed, traveled when walking. They appear to be well made and will approxi- mate exactness in their performances.
Albert Ditisheim & f reres, St. Imier, made an exhibit of gold and silver 18-line lever watches with calendar and moon's phases; also 14 and 16 line watches and chronographs, all well made.
Droz & Co., St. Imier, displayed large and small watches, some with sweep seconds, all good work. They received silver medals at Paris 1889, Antwerp 1886, Amsterdam 1883, Chaux de Fonds 1881, Paris 1878.
Fr. Vilingelf uss, Basil, exhibited watchmen time detectors that were well made and capable of rendering good and efficient service.
F. Borgel, Geneva, had something new in his waterproof cases made in a single piece without hinges; many of them were made of oxidized steel inlaid with gold. A number of the smallest watches made, beau- tifully decorated with diamonds and enamels, in small globes, brace- lets, and chatelaines were very attractive and showed great skill in this most delicate department of watchmaking.
J. Ferrero, Geneva: A 7-line watch with its back entirely covered with a single diamond valued at $1,300 was a very unique production. It was truly brilliant all over, and attracted general attention by its wonderful beauty. A large number of exquisitely ornamented oases in enamels with portraits and landscapes showed artistic work of the highest grade, and fanciful cases incrusted and decorated with magnifi- cent designs in diamonds, rubies, pearls, and enamels made a grand display.
Fred-Julien Sagne, La Neuveville: Conspicuous in this display was a large lever watch, fully jeweled with very large jewels, the screw heads being capped with jewels, making it a very showy and expensive movement. Minute repeaters, split seconds, chronographs, calendars, and plain watches with observatory certificates were all of good con- struction and finish.
A. Glaton, Geneva: This was a collection of the very smallest watches, having cases most elaborately decorated with exquisite designs in diamonds, rubies, sapphires, pearls, and enamels, showing great talent and skill in this most difficult kind of work.
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Ch. Dufaux, (leneva, is celebrated for his most exquisiteW made balance spring'sof <UhA and palladium. Here 48 of them were arranged in the form of an immense balance spring. All the forms, from the smallest to the largest, of flat spiml, helical or cylindrical, globular, and double cone, made with the highest degree of skill and care, were arranged in elegant designs. Twenty medals attest to the great merit of his manufacture.
Ulysse Perret, Kenan, had a complete line of mainsprings of all kinds and sizes displayed in the design of a lyre, his trade-mark. His springs are made in precise metrical lengths, needing no fitting by a workman. His invention of a stay clasp spring in one piece does away with other methods using an additional ))iece. This house claims to be the only maker in Switzerland employing stc^am power and mechan- ical processes in making mainsprings. None but skilled labor is employed, using stock possessing all the required qualities of elastic- ity, strength, and regularity. All of hih productions are of the firet class in quality, regularity, and finish. Was awarded a medal at Paris, 1889.
C. & E. Leisenheimer, Geneva, displayed mainsprings, from the smallest to the largest, of excellent quality, showing great care and skillful workmanship in regard to elasticity, strength, and regularity in thickness and width.
A. Herzog, Geneva, made an elegant display of mainsprings of all sizes and forms, of the best quality, and highly finished work, ari-anged in designs of a lyre, and a clock and a compass, dials with letters and figures formed of many small, tightly coiled springs. This house was established in 1840, and it is statt^d that out of 48 watches admitted to the Geneva Observatory trials in 1892, 40 had Herzog springs. He has been awarded prizes at Paris, London, Philadelphia, Vienna, Lyons, and Zurich.
C. A. Milliet, Geneva, exhibited mainsprings of all sizes, in elegant designs, showing the great skill and care used by this maker in all the details required in making such perfect productions.
Chr. Schweingruber, St. Imier: This display of mainsprings and hairsprings of all sizes was arranged in beautiful designs, and showed the degree of perfection arrived at in the quality of his productions. This house, established in 1866, has a yearly output of 180,000 dozens of mainsprings, made by 80 workmen.
Boulanger, Maillard & Co., Geneva, made a beautiful display' of watch dials enameled by the B. V. J. process, variously decorated dials in underglaze enamels of a superior quality, plain dials, and for chrono- graphs and calendars, all showing accurate work.
Mot6 & M^roz, Geneva: This display was of dials of the greatest excellence, showing execution of the highest order in the art. Enam- eled dials with exquisitely applied mised gold were something splendid.
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They have medals from expositions at Paris, Philadelphia, London, Vienna, Melbourne, Berne, Zurich, and Besanpon.
J. Wyss fils, Chaux de Fonds, made a grand exhibit of enameled dials in novel styles and designs, embracing underglaze, ivory, and transparent dials of all colors, and the finest quality of plain work. This art appeal's to be about as near perfection as the requirements of the trade demand. There seems to be a tendency to overdecoration with colors, which may be attractive to some buyers, but it gives the impression to people of good taste that the dials cover movements of inferior quality.
Grobet freres, Vallorbes: In a very large wall case were displayed in various designs files of all kinds, from 1 inch to 2 feet in length, of every required shape, and for special purposes. They are the largest manufacturers of files in Switzerland, were established in 1834, and their reputation for making files and gravers of the highest excel- lence is worldwide. ^
Vautier & fils, Geneva: Everyone who has handled files and gravers is familiar with this stamp. Their exhibit in an upright case embraced in artistic designs all the known forms of files and gravers from the smallest to the largest used in watch making, and the large number of medals awarded to them by the great expositions shows the great merit of their productions.
J. -Marc Servet, Geneva: A very fine and tastefully arranged dis- play in an upright case of a complete assortment of files of all shapes and kinds for watchmakers' use was very attractive, and showed the excellence of his manufacture, which is attested by a large number of medals awarded for their merit.
Borloz & Noguet-Borloz, Vallorbes: In a wall case about 50 square feet of surface was covered, in handsome designs, with files of all shapes, sizes, and fineness of cutting, expressly adapted to all the wants of clock and watch makers. Something new was shown in small files for the most delicate use. They were not cut, but their abrasive surfaces were so prepared as to show a very fine grain, which in some kinds of work would be ver}'' convenient, as they leave a kind of finished surface.
L.-E. Junod, Lucens, had a very extensive and interesting exhibit of jewels for watches and chronometers, hole jewels, cap jewels, jewels for duplex, chronometer^ and other escapements, all made in the most perfect manner possible in the art. As many of them were micro- scopic in character, but few people could appreciate the wonderful skill displayed in their manufacture.
Wagnon freres, Geneva: Arranged in many elegant designs were exhibited the most exquisite and delicate watch hands possible to be made — gold, silver, steel, oxidized and jeweled — and their combina- tions from the very smallest second hand to the largest used in split
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seconds. The many beautiful forms, accui'ate workmanship, and artistic skill shown in their constiniction were a source of wonder. Few people are aware of the great difference in the quality of watch hands. They stamp the quality of the watch. As soon as an expert looks at the hands and dial he knows in advance the grade of movement he will see when the case is opened.
Kichardet, Chaux de Fonds, manufacturer of watch hands of all descriptions, made a ver}' creditable display of this most delicate work, beautifully made in form and finish, suitable for all kinds of watches.
P. Guye & Co., Geneva: Anunged in beautiful designs were balance springs for watches, of all sizes, from the smallest, which could only be appreciated by being seen under a microscope, to the largest used. Little is known of the extremely delicate touch and skill required to place the smallest of these properly in a watch. Placed on a piece of white paper, one intended for a six-line watch would look to an ordi- nary person like a dark speck or stain, and to place one of this size properly in a watch costs $20,
Bartimi & Co., Bienne, made a large display of exquisitely made balance springs, from the smallest to the largest sizes in the different forms used — cylindrical, spiml, globular, etc. In late years there has been a marvelous improvement in this industry, particularly in the exquisite finish on all sides given to the springs, which, from their delicate construction, would seem almost an impossibility.
Tschumi fils, Geneva, made a display of their admirable work in brushes specially made for watch and clock makers. This branch of brush making requires particular care and skill, which was shown in their meritorious wofk.
GERMANY.
From this country there were 44 exhibits in this group. In the watch-making industry there has been a remarkable improvement. Their two exhibits showed progress in the high grade of complicated watches which have only in late years been put upon the market, showing that a technical education in horological schools is bringing forth more skillful artisans.
The clock industry also has made progress in more artistically designed and constructed cases, as well as movements. The products of the Black Forest district were shown by many makers, and a noted improvement in their workmanship since their display at Vienna in 1873 was plainl}^ to be seen. In some of the work of their best makers an approach to the finest class of French manufacture was apparent, and the efforts in new principles of construction give evidence that their brains are actively at work in invention. Wall clocks, mantel clocks, and hall clocks, from the most elaborate and costly in design
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and execution to the cheapest grades, were a veiy fair exhibit of the state of the art and the character of their products.
Durrstein & Co., Dresden: This exhibit of the characteristic Glas- huette manufacture comprised plain and complicated watches in cases of different designs and sizes; one specially grand was marked sold at 5,000 marks (about $1,250). It was a minute repeater, with four small dials on the large one, self -striking as it passed each hour, split seconds and fifths of a second, perpetual calendar, moon's phases, two second- hands on the same axis, one showing fifths of a second and going around sixty times in a minute, while the other made one revolution in a minute. The fifths of a secondhand could be stopped, and is a fly- back. All the ten hands can be set without opening the case. Also showed self-striking and minute and quarter striking repeaters, chro- nographs, and well-constructed time watches made after the Glashuette caliber; watches with projecting pins at the hours made specially for the blind; cases with designs in colored gold; monograms in silver and yellow gold; also decorated with diamonds, enamels, paintings, engravings, and repouss^ work.
A. Lange & S5hne, Glashuette, have made an advance on their usual manufacture of twenty years ago in producing complicated watches, such as split seconds, repeaters, etc., all good work, and upon new principles of construction. The individual parts of their watches were shown, so that they could be thoroughly examined. An appa- tus for ascertaining the compensating power of balances in heat and cold was a very ingenious construction and extremely delicate in its performance. Their exhibit of plain watches, for which they have had a wide reputation for many yeai's, had their usual careful workmanship to insure good time-keeping qualities. A split-seconds and minute repeater, with calendar and moon's phases, with a certificate from the Leipzig Observatory, valued at $1,200, was an admirable piece of work. A quarter repeater, with improved construction in winding work, and a tourbillion with chronometer escapement, were beautiful and ailistic constructions; quarter and minute repeaters of excellent workmanship. A calendar watch wound up by the act of walking, and also wound and set by the pendant, was a new production; also ladies' watches in differ- ent styles. Their case contained many medals awarded to them at the great expositions.
Gustav Speckhardt, Mogeldorf : In the German Government build- ing was a large clock, 16i feet high, containing 13 large clock move- ments to givemotion to its different parts, 2 for the time and striking hours ai\d quarters, 1 for making music, 1 for the clock, and the others for giving motion to the groups and single figures. The cock crows morning and evening, an angel with a hammer strikes the hours, and Death, with a bone, the quarters, followed by a chiming of bells. A group of figures comes on the stage each hour and play
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music suitable to the scenes to be enacted — the entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the scene at the Mount of Olives, the St^ourging, Christ before Pilate, the Way to the Cross, the Crucifixion, and the Resurrection. The case was ornamented with rich carvings and many figures of persons in the Old and New Testaments, altogether showing an immense amount of patience and ingenuity in its construction.
Bavarian Ludwig pavilion: In this pavilion was a large bronze elk supporting a square tower containing a clock on his back; on the case at each of its four corners were mermaids, and on the side of the elk hunting implements. This remarkable work of art was designed by F. Gedon, of Munich. A table about 5 feet high, having legs carved with highly artistic designs, supported a richly carved square-cased clock; each side of the square contained a large dial; one of the dials had on it smaller dials, showing the month, day of the month, day of the week, and moon's phases; another dial had seven smaller dials show- ing the time in seven of the principal cities of the world; another side was occupied entirely with one dial having two hands to show the time. The movement was made by R. Korfhage.
Sigmund Riefler, Munich, exhibited an absolutely free pendulum escapement, with impelling action m the axis of oscillation; a mercurial compensation pendulum, and an astronomical clock fitted with the escapement and pendulum. A small turret clpck of beautiful work- manship in which the escapement could be seen and its action under- stood was also exhibited. From the advantages that he claims, and a certificate of its remarkable performance from the Royal Observatory at Munich, it is deserving of much consideration. The rod of the pendulum is made of a steel tube with a bore of 16 millimeters; thick- ness of its walls, 1 millimeter, filled with mercury about two-thirds of its length; the metal bob, weighing seveml pounds, is lenticular in shape. The pendulum is kept in motion by an ingenious escapement that moves the point of suspension at every beat, so that it is claimed to be an ''absolutely free" pendulum.
At the Vienna Exposition, in the exhibit of Samuel Kralik, of Pesth, was a regulator with two glass tubes containing mercury for a pen- dulum. The tubes vibrated upon a knife-edge adjusted about 6 inches below the top of the mercurial columns. In the exhibit of Guilmet, of Paris, was a clock that had a female figure standing on the top of it with an arm extended upward holding suspended by her fingei's a pendulum; by an imperceptible rotary movement to and fro of the base on which the figure stood, caused by the escapement, th^ point of suspension of the pendulum was moved at ever}- beat, and conse- quently the pendulum continued in vibration, much to the wonder of the lookers-on. So we had an "absolutely free" pendulum and com- pensation by mercury in tubes composing the pendulum more than
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twenty years ago. How far the interference in invention goes we can not, from our limited remembrance, say.
Arndt & Marcus, Berlin: Conspicuous was a mantel clock, of onyx with gilt ornaments and dial of onyx, about 18 inches high, the front supported by two female terminal statues of gilt bronze and sur- mounted by an urn of onyx and bronze — an elegant and artistic piece of work. A porcelain clock, about 3 feet high, elaborate in design and painted with great skill, having gilt figures and ornaments, was marked at $250. A clock, about 2 feet high, with red marble base surmounted by two bronze male and female figures, was a beautiful work of art, marked at $350.
W. Dieckman, Celle, Hanover, exhibited an eight-day geographical, astronomical, and chiiiiing clock, with its pedestal about 9 feet high. Besides the main dial the clock had on the left side of the case 8 dials and the same number on the right side, showing the time in 16 of the principal cities of the world. On the side opposite the main dial was a dial with a perpetual calendar which indicated the day of the week, the day of the month, the time difference between mean and solar time, and the phases of the moon. The clock and pedestal were highly ornamented with 54 sculptured representations and decorations.
J. Graschkus, Berlin: A hall clock, with a wide, four-sided base, ornamented with gilding and paintings, dial in arabesque work, body of the clock in graceful and exquisite design, with chain weights, was in all probability the finest exhibit in hall-clock cases in the Exposition.
C. F. Rocklitz, Berlin: In the tower of the German Government building was a turret clock by this maker that had some new princi- ples of construction. The weight of the fourth wheel and pinion gave impulse to the pendulum upon the gravity principle. The system is somewhat complicated and can not be well described without illustra- tions. The hands moved at each interval of fifteen seconds. The train and weights were heavy enough to control the hands under all ordinary circumstances, but there are doubts in regard to its being any improvement over the ordinary double three-legged gravity escape- ment, which can only be settled after a long trial of its performance.
Emil Krohne, Berlin: An exquisite boudoir clock in red Nuremburg faience with a white porcelain dial ornamented with gilt bronze figures and surmounted by an urn was a superb piece of workmanship; also a clock in a blue Nuremburg faience vase with a gilt urn on top and supporting figures on each side.
Franz Pecher, Carlsruhe: Three hall clocks with cases elaborately carved and painted and a trumpeter clock designed by Professor Goetz, with very handsome wood carvings, were deserving of much attention.
Otto Schulz: A clock about 2 feet high with a dial on a globe sup- ported by a base and suiTaounted by a figure of Fame on the wheel of fortune was a highly artistic production.
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J. C. Schweitzer, Munich: A silver elephant over 3 feet high with gorgeous trappings, bearing on his back a houdah containing a clock, on two sides of which were dials. In front of the houdah were figures of Venus, preceded by a Cupid on the elephant. On the top corners of the houdah were four griffins, the hands in the form of serpents. It was a very remarkable and impressive production.
J. Jagemann, Munich: A collection of very small gilt clocks contain- ing watch movements was very attractive. A square gilded table clock, with silver dial, bell in cupola, and Venus on a terminal was very beautiful in design. An old-style clock with inscription, "Experience comes in time," was also very pretty.
Jahresuhrenfabrik, Triberg, made a display of well-made clocks with torsion pendulums, in gilt cases and square cases with plate glass sides covered with glass shades. They resembled a high class of French work, and were very attractive in appearance. This system was in considerable use in this country fifty years ago in a cheap form of ''year clock" that ran a year with once winding, but they soon ceased to be sold by dealers. The style and finish of the clocks in this exhibit render them an attractive and desirable ornament for a mantelpiece.
Junghaus Bros., Schramberg, made a large display of automaton, alarm, wall clocks and regulators, with wooden cases in great variety.
Fredrich Mauthe, Schwenningen, exhibited 100 designs in alaim clocks, cuckoo and quail clocks, regulators with weights and also with springs, and eight-day hall clocks, 200 patterns; special t}'^ in cuckoo clocks; makes all the requisite carvings on the cases. A magnificent hall clock with chimes and the case elaborately carved, and many bracket clocks with carvings of animals, showed good work and artistic taste. Clocks in cases of English patterns, and alarm clocks on the American system in 100 different styles, altogether made this display one of the largest in foreign clocks.
C. Werner, Villingen, had a large collection of eight-day and strik- ing hall clocks, spring regulators running fourteen days, cuckoo clocks, alarm and wall clocks in English styles of casing, musical clock with trumpeter, sold at $300, and in a case the various kind of movements made after French, English, and German systems. This is one of the largest factories in Germany, and makes all the parts of a clock.
F. X. Wildenauer, Munich: Conspicuous in this display was a Columbus musical hall clock, with elegantly carved figures illustrat- ing the history of his discovery, the pendulum bob a representation of the ship Santa Maria from the most authentic source — a very artistic production, and valued at $1,200. There was also a large collection of hall clocks with exposed weights and pendulum, and wall clocks in cases of many different styles, all showing good and very creditable work.
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C. W. Schweyer, Munich, exhibited a very large and handsome wall clock in a white and gold case highly ornamented with carvings, and other well-constructed clocks in cases with Bavarian style of carving. Joh. B. Beha & Son, Eisenbach, made a remarkable exhibit of 8 cuckoo clocks, one with the bird in natural size and natural call, a cuckoo clock with echo, another striking the hour, with cuckoo and quail calls, cases painted to represent the Black Forest costumes; also bracket, wall, and musical clocks — a very interesting display of their mechanical ingenuity in this line.
Winterhalder & Hofmeier, Neustadt, had a display of hall clocks with chimes in elaborately carved cases, bracket and mantel clocks in English and German styles of cases, all exceedingly fine workmanship. M. Ballin, Munich, exhibited elegant hall clocks with cases artistic- ally designed and executed with great skill, all showing excellent work. W. Quehl, Berlin: A mantel clock of Algerian bronze, highly orna- mented with bronze figures in the style of Louis XVI, and two Louis XV clocks in black cases with gold ornaments, were exquisite in design and truly works of art.
Ette & Mischeke made an exhibition of 7 hall clocks with open and closed cases in different styles and profusely carved in beautiful designs. Thomas Haller, Schwenningen, exhibited well-made wall and mantel clocks.
Robert Pleissner, Dresden, made a display of wall clocks and table clocks after copyrighted designs; had awards at Munich, 1888, and Dresden, 1891.
Hermann Sofner, Munich, made an exhibit of Rococo and wall clocks. Wilde Brothers, Villingen, had a collection of wall and table clocks. L. Furtwangler & Sons exhibited hall clocks, with open and inclosed weights, in very handsome cases. Jacob Bradl^ Munich, displayed elegant Rococo clocks. C. Leyer exhibited a large clock in the form of a beer keg, sur- mounted by a figure of Bacchus, the dial being on the head of the keg. Emilian Wehrle, Furtwangen: Very large bracket clocks in elabo- rately carved cases, with automaton flute players and trumpeters, and singing birds of various kinds, made a very large and meritorious display.
Maurer & Hoffer, Eisenbach, exhibited mantel and bracket clocks in artistically carved cases; also in cases resembling English manufacture; all very creditable work.
R. Schneckenburger, Muhlheim, made a very large display of bracket and mantel clocks in well-made cases resembling English styles, also hall clocks and regulators of good workmanship.
Theod Hahn, Stuttgart, made an exhibit of improved electro- magnetic watchmen clocks, ifll well made. COL EXPO — 02 6S
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Alfred Conti, I^rlin: Central and signal-service clocks and Urania pillar clerks appeared to be his special manufacture.
Etzold & Poplitz, Leipzig, had principally wall and mantel clocks.
J. N. Eberle & Co., Augsburg: This firm, established in 1836, employs 300 workmen, and probably made the most extensive display of watch and clock mainsprings of all kinds, saw blades, and files of all sizes, and as small as needle files. They had prizes awarded to them at London, 1862, and Paris, 1867.
Herm Wolfe, Kronstanz, makes a specialty of phosphoresc*ent or luminous clock dials of glass and pasteboard for night use, as well as by day.
Charles Schweizer made a display of large and small enameled clock dials of good workmanship.
August Schwer, Triberg, exhibited small clocks, well made, in cases of attractive forms and styles.
Fredr. Pfahrer, Triberg, displayed a large number of exceedingly small wall clocks in fanciful cases.
Lorch, Schmidt & Co., Frankfort, had a large collection of all kinds of tools for watch and clock makers' use, well made and of excellent quality.
AUSTRIA.
This country, so celebrated for clock making, made no special dis- play in this group, but among the various art collections were the exhibits of eight manufacturers, whose elegant productions were chefs d'cBUvre in this art.
Victor Stiassny, Vienna: In this collection was a magnificent man- tel clock 3 feet high in a black Vienna china case, green enameled dial, and gilt-bronze ornaments — a remaritable production. A grand wall clock in blue Vienna china case with gilt ornaments was a very elabo- rate and highly decorated design. Small mantel clocks in exquisitely designed cases artistically ornamented were superior productions.
J. Kalmdr, Vienna: In this display was a clock in a bronze globe surmounted by a gilt figure of Mercury, a highly artistic piece of work; also magnificent mantel clocks in gilt-bronze cases with figures of a high class in art.
C. Lux, Vienna: In this collection were a niunber of exquisitely beautiful mantel clocks in gilt-bronze cases ornamented with figures of great merit.
Robert Pilz, Vienna, had in his display clocks in enamel and bronze cases ornamented with beautiful paintings on porcelain.
Dziedzinski & Hanusch, Vienna: This superb collection contained magnificent mantel clocks in cuses entiroly gilt, with highly artistic figures.
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J. Zekert, Meisterdorf : A line of exquisite boudoir clocks and clocks in Bohemian glass and gilt-bronze cases, beautiful in design, made a collection of great merit.
Prof. Schwartz & G. Lind: A large mantel clock in square gilt- bronze case with bas-reliefs and figures was grand and highly artistic in design.
Ed & F. Richter: A magnificent mantel clock 4 feet high, entirely gilded, and supported with superbly executed artistic figures, was suf- ficient to give this house a world-wide reputation as masters in this art.
DENMARK.
This country has a world-wide reputation for the finest horological work. The Jurgensen family, of Copenhagen, of which Urban Jiir- genaen and Jules Jurgensen were prominent members, constructed watches that were surpassed by none in their day for elegance of form, construction, finish, and time-keeping qualities, but no exhibit of watches was made showing the state of the art there at the present time.
Bertram Larsen, Copenhagen, exhibited a small turret clock with a Graham escapement, constructed so as to show the time either mechan- ically or by electricity, or both ways at the same time. Here elec- tricity was used. The two dials of the turrets at the entrance to the Danish section showed Chicago and Copenhagen time, respectively. The commutator was claimed to be an improved construction.
GREAT BRITAIN.
In this section there were but two exhibitors in this group, repre- senting principally the clock-making industry. It is much to be regretted that exhibits of their marine chronometers and watches, made in the renaissance of the art, during the past fifteen years, in England, were not sent here, as they would have been of exceedingly great interest to many people in this country. The introduction of Amer- ican machine-made watches into Great Britain and her colonies, and their large importation of Swiss watches, have stimulated them to the exertion of their greatest energies to keep them from losing entirely this great industry. We should not undervalue their products, for they have now become immense both in number and quality, and may make a serious impression in the markets of the world. In the Revue Chronometrique for November, 1889, it may be found that Mr. E. Antoine, a juror at Paris in 1889, says, in regard to English watch- making, '*they equal if they do not excel their predecessors in every country, and that is the impression caused abroad. " Our makers should seriously consider the situation, and not go "complacently asleep in the conviction that they have set up limits" with machine-made watches, for they may be woefully mistaken.
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Goldsmiths and Silversmiths Company, London: Among the many grand productions of this company was an " Exposition clock spe- cially designed and manufactured for the World's Fair in 1893." The case was about 8 feet high and octagonal in form with elegantly chased and richly gilded ornaments, the cotton plant and flower being the principal subjects. The case had eight panels, representing the sports, swimming, running, yachting, cycling, baseball, trotting, and jump- ing, with a view of Brooklyn Bridge. E^h panel was surmounted by a portrait of Washington, Lincoln, Grant, Franklin, Jackson, Har- rison, and Cleveland, respectively, and a medallion portrait of Queen Victoria. The clock had four dials, showing English, American, French, and Spanish time. About 4 feet from the floor, on a platforai around the clock, were twelve figures, representing players in cricket, rowing, shooting, polo racing, La Crosse, })oxing, running, tennis, football, and wrestling, which revolved in procession as the clock striked each quarter hour. Above at the sides of the dials four col- umns supported brackets with vases, between each of which were figures signifying progress in art, science, industry, and engineering. The American eagle was shown above each dial. At each hour the American and Fnglish anthems were played, the time being denoted by a chime of 8 bells, the Westminster chimes on four gongs, and the hour on a gong. All can be repeated at will, imparting to the whole work a realism and eflFectiveness they claim has never before been attained in any similar production. The clock movement and other mechanism showed the good work characteristic of English manufacture. An eight-day hall clock in solid mahogany case, being a copy of old Chippendale clock with Westminster and cathedral chimes with a gilt silver dial, was a masterpiece in this art. They also exhibited chatelaine watches highly decorated and gentlemen's watches, elegantly cased, inclosing movements of excellent make.
J. Smith & Sons, Clerkenwell: Chiming clocks appeared to be a specialty with this house; hall clocks, with elaborately constructed and ornamented cases, giving Whittington chimes on eight bells, West- minster chimes on four gongs, Cambridge chimes on four bells, and chimes on eight suspended tubes, the hours being struck on a very large tube. Also pedestal and mantel clocks with chimes, in ebony cases, with bronze ornaments, and grandfather clocks, all of that standard construction and excellent manufacture so long known in English workmanship; prices from $150 to $800. In a glass case was a small turret clock with gravity escapement.
Marcus Benjamin, Sydney : In the New South Wales pavilion were two remarkable watches. The inventor and maker, Mr. Benjamin, claims important improvements by which the mechanism of the center sec- onds movement is reduced 75 per cent. They were independent, dead beat, center seconds stop watches, and surprisingl}'^ well made, coming
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from that part of the world. As far as could be seen of their construc- tion, without taking them apart, the independent train received its going power from the time train through a small spring, like a balance spring'that was coiled around, and its inner end fastened to a pinion's shaft of the time train; around the spring was a very small band with teeth on its periphery, this little spring, like a Patek mainspring, had its outer end loose, so that when the independent train was stopped the little band that gave impulse to it also stopped and the hair spring, in the little band, with its outer *end loose, was carried around continu- ously by the time train until the independent train was started, when the friction of the outer end of the little coiled spring, with the inside of the little band wheel, would carry the band wheel around and move the so-called independent train. In reality the time train is expending continuously, whether the independent train is going or not, some of its power in wioding up this additional spiral spring. In an experi- ence of more than fifty years we have seen two other watches con- structed on this principle for carrying the second hand, so that probably in this advanced age it will be diflicult to introduce this new system into commerce.
FRANCE.
In the manufacture of clocks in the highest class, this country sur- passes all other nations in the vast product that is exported to all the civilized portions of the world. A wonderful display was made from the diminutive and beautiful traveling clock to the grand, almost monumental constructions designed .by their ablest artists. The immense capital invested in this industry almost surpasses belief , and the number of people engaged in the business is enormous; one firm of clock and watch makers at Beaucourt has a capital of $10,000,000, and the extent of their works is colossal. The good and artistic work produced at Besan^on has been widely known and appreciated for many years; in 1883 the number of watches made there was 501,602, valued at about $5,000,000, but owing to the use of automatic machinery in watch making at other localities and the old system of hand work being retained there, the production had fallen off to 366,197 watches in 1888, valued at $3,000,000. They are now more prosperous, and with their great artistic skill will soon rival other great producing localities with their great output in number, quality, and price.
This country has made remarkable progress in watch making, owing in a measure to the great interest taken in fostering horological schools, but from the few exhibits made a proper idea could not be formed of the great extent of their output or the wonderful skill they possess in all bi-anches of this industry. Their talent in decorative work and in foiining designs for clocks has here full play, and they
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exercise it to a surprising extent, as was shown in the great variety of magnificent examples of their art. In giving a description of many of these masterpieces words will fail to convey to the mind their wonderful beauty, only by giving many days of study to their artistic merits could a proper idea be formed of their surpassing excellence, for they were really combinations of sculpture and painting on metal, porcelain, and marble.
B. Haas, freres, made the largest and most complete display of watches in this section, consisting of minute repeaters with split seconds, perpetual calendar, and moon's phases, a self-winding minute repeater with two dials, a repeater that automatically struck the hours in passing and having split seconds, a minute repeater with two dials and two trains, one-fifth of a second and second hand on same axis, on reverse dial a perpetual calendar, moon's phases, and metallic thermometer; a splendid line of complicated watches of all combina- tions; chatelaine watches in great variety with highly decorated cases, some in the forms of beetles, butterflies, etc., ornamented with unique designs and incrusted with diamonds, pearls, and exquisite paintings on enamel; a wonderful watch in green enamel case, artistically decorated with diamonds in exquisite designs, the dial green enamel with figures in gold, this side also magnificently decorated with diamonds in artistic designs; the very smallest of watches in a ring, and one in a rosebud which opened by pressure, disclosing the dial; a line of cheap watches, from $1 to $10, filled cases with 18-jeweled movements, nicely finished, costing $6 in France, and full-plate move- ments in steel cases ornamented with niello work.
Soci^t^ Anofiyme, Besan^on, made an elegant display of minute repeaters and chatelaine watches artistically decorated with diamonds, rubies, and enamels, also individual parts of watches and elegantly made traveling clocks.
Louis Ancoc, fils, Paris, exhibited a tiny watch in a ring, surrounded with rubies, and three large diamonds on each side, and two extremely small watches with chatelaines, wonderfully decorated with diamonds and paintings on enamel.
Drocourt, Paris, displayed highly decorated chatelaine watches, a very small minute repeater, and a chronograph. This house is also noted for good quality in traveling clocks partially made at the factory in St. Nicholas d'Alieremont near Dieppe and finished in Paris.
H. Houdebine, pere et fils, Paris: The following clocks in this exhibit were remarkable productions. A marble column on a highly ornamented base supported a dial about 7 inches in diameter; on the sides two female figures about 18 inches high holding wreaths of flowers hanging from an urn was exquisite in design. A clock in gilt bronze and lapis lazuli designed after a clock that belonged to Marie Antoinette; a serpent points with its tongue to the hour figures on a
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revolving band and the minutes on a narrow band above, A clock in silver case with figures of Cupid and a dragon; a Louis XV pastoral movement in a blue enameled globe with stars surmounted by two doves and supported by three cherubs; a beautiful Louis XVI clock was a column of pink marble supporting a movement surrounded by designs representing the King of the Sun supporting figures of Venus and Cupid in bronze; a large gilt clock in a shell surmounted by a bronze Venus in a car drawn by two Cupids was highl}' artistic; a clock in a chariot drawn by a dragon and driven by a Cupid was exceedingly beautiful; in marble and bronze Louis XVI style, a movement supported by a bronze eagle.
A. Beurdeley : A reproduction of a clock made for Louis XV, about 7 feet high, had four legs about 3 feet high like a table, very antique in design, had center seconds and hands showing the day of the week, month, moon's phases, and year, case surmounted b}'^ celestial globe inclosed in a globular glass casing; a hall clock in ebony highly ornamented with designs in gilt bronze, surmounted b}'^ a group of bronze horses driven by Apollo in a chariot; large and splendid mantel clocks in antique and Louis XV styles with cases extremely beautiful in design, and surmounted with exquisite and highl}' artistic figures.
Fernand Gervais, Paris: A Louis XVI clock 4 feet high, in gilt bronze with red marble base; price, $2,200; for the candelabras, $2,600. Reclining in front of the clock was a female figure, sculptured in Carrara marble by Carrier Belleuse; the marble cherubs also by the same artist. A reproduction of a porcelain clock in the form of a vase, supported by bronze figures, in the Kensington Museum, that belonged to Marie Antoinette, was about 15 inches high, had gilt ornaments, and was exquisitely decorated with paintings; the clock dial was in the body of the vase. A repi'oduction of a clock in the Trianon that belonged to Marie Antoinette was 3 feet high, a dial in the body of a harp ornamented with gilt bronze designs. A clock in a red marble vase about 3 feet high with bronze ornaments, supported by two beautiful bronze female figures 2 feet high was a very artistic production; price, $1,000. A clock in a gilt bronze column with a bronze cherub as an artist holding an exquisitely painted portrait on enamel, marked $800. A large blue enameled globe contained a clock supported by two gilt bronze female figures. On a pink marble base two bronze figures carried a highly ornamented gilt bronze sedan chair containing a clock.
Emile Colin & Co., Paris: A design by Marioton was a column about 7 feet high supporting a clock in gilt and enamel work after the antique; a life-size figure of Diana, gilt, was attached to the col- umn; on the column about midway of the figure was a gilt Cupid. This was the most artistic and imposing work of art in this line in the
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920 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.
Exposition. Two female figures supporting an urn and clock about 3 feet high was another magnificent and artistic production.
Lamaille & Co.: A splendid hall clock in variegated onyx and red marble, with gilt ornaments, was a gorgeous construction; price, $1,200. A very large collection of mantel clocks, from the smallest to the largest size, in porcelain and gilt cases, and two large wall clocks were also of superior manufacture.
Millet: Two exquisite clocks, reproductions of Louis XVI styles, and one in the form of a blue globe, with Cupids; another like it, but with a gilt bronze figure reclining over the top, were artistic produc- tions, as also were two very high hall clocks with elaborately orna- mented cases, after Louis XV and Louis XVI designs.
Desir^ Disclyn made a very interesting and unique exhibit of clocks in cases of forged iron, after antique designs, showing the great resources of the artist in art metal work. The impression this exhibit made was very strange, carrying one back centuries, when such work showed the artist and master workman in forged iron.
F. & Ch. Pierre: This house had a large line of mantel clocks in highly ornamented porcelain cases, with lever escapements and bal- ances, black and bronze cases, with pendulums, and a large number with Algerian onj'^x cases — all elegant in design and finish. Conspicu- ous was a clock about 4 feet high, in Algerian onyx, with the Marly horse tamers in gilt bronze as supporters; dial rim in onyx; in the center a representation of the landing of Columbus; all surmounted by a gilt bronze statue of Columbus in a sitting position, with a globe in his hand; price, $2,000.
Villon, Paris, exhibited a- most exquisite line of traveling clocks, from the smallest to the largest sizes, all in gilt and crystal cases, showing a high class of workmanship in the movements. In his fac- tory at St. Nicholas he claims to make every part of his clocks, from the little ticktacks and alarms to regulators and chiming clocks, and was expert to the jury at Paris, 1889.
Passerat, Paris, made a specialty of reproductions. On a pedestal was a Louis XVI clock, about 4 feet high, designed by the artist Berain, from one in the reception rooms of the Tuilleries; black case, inlaid with metal; glass front and sides, highly ornamented with fig- ures in gilt bronze, surmounted by a figure of Time sitting on a globe; price $835. A square clock on a pedestal, all 8 feet high, in ebony, with gilt ornaments, silver and gilt dial with gilt figures in basrelief, sole reproduction of one presented to the Paris Observatory by Louis XIV, was designed by Co j' pel and executed by Caflieri; price $1,600. Three mantel clocks in square c^ses, and a bracket clock, 3 feet high, in red enamel and gilt bronze were artistic productions. A wall clock of the Palais de Justice, design by Gennan Pillou, was one of the finest reproductions of the renaissance period; price $800.
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Leblanc-Barbedienne exhibited clocks in beautiful cases of magnifi- cent Persian designs in gilt and enamel.
Louchet f r^res, Paris, made a display of Louis XVI boudoir clocks in gilt bronze and porcelain; one with two columns of onyx, gilt bronze and enamel, supported and surrounded by birds, was a beau- tiful design. Clocks in exquisitely painted porcelain vases and lyres, and other designs artistically ornamented with paintings, and supported by finely executed figures, were too numerous to give a detailed description, although deserving of special notice.
Barbedienne, Paris: In this great art collection were 3 clocks that deserve special mention — a beautiful mantel clock in* bronze and enamel with Persian decorations; a superb gilt-bronze clock, about 30 inches high, marked $1,200 and a magnifient square-cased Louis XVI mantel clock.
A. Damm & Colin, Paris, exhibited a hall clock in elegant design, entirely gilded and highly ornamented, a remarkable piece of work- manship.
Glazener & Co. made a large exhibit of clocks in porcelain, onyx and gilt cases, traveling clocks of all sizes, some with exquisitely gilt dials, regulators, and a large gilt Louis XIV clock on a socle with candelabras, all choice works of art.
Chariot fibres: A magnificent mantel clock, square in design, with four columns in blue enamel and gilt, with blue enamel and gilt dial and gilt figures, the dial sourrounded by four female figures painted in a highly artistic manner, was a remarkably beautiful production.
Peconnet, Paris, exhibited a line of superbly made watch cases, grandly decorated with diamonds and enamels.
A. Moynet & Co., Paris: These extensive dealers in watch and clock material made a large displa}^ of tools and watch material of the best manufacture.
Grisot Saillard, Besan^on, made a display of superbly made main- springs of all sizes, having all the good qualities required by the best class of watches.
SPAIN.
This country had only one exhibitor in this group, but the exhibit was a surprise in the wonderful skill and perfect work shown in metal incrustation.
Mrs. Filipa Guisasola, Madrid: In the Spanish section was a remark- able exhibit of gold incrusting on blue black steel. On watch cases made of steel was some of the most beautiful work in this art ever seen; the designs were so beautiful, graceful, and exquisitely delicate that it would seem to be vandalism to even wear these cases; they should be kept as art treasures. The designs are first engraved on the steel in an undercut; the gold is then applied, fills the engraved lines
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and raised al>ove the surface of the steel, then finished b}^ hand engrav- ing. As the largest example of this remarkable kind of work, a vase about 3 feet high, with exquisite designs in gold of 8 different colors, was valued at ^0,000.
SWEDEN.
In many provinces in this country, especially in Delarme, they dis- play great mechanical skill. Wall clocks, tower clocks, and station clocks are more and more manufactured, and even exported to neigh- boring countries. In 1890 there were 29 timepiece factories, the largest of which is the Halda Watch Factory, which produces yearly about 6,000 watches in gold and silver cases.
Halda Watch Manufacturing Company exhibited watches of con- siderable merit in finish and principles of construction; also individual parts of watches in different stages of manufacture, all well made, the jeweling well done, and they make the dials. The cases in gold and silver were also well made, showing the capacity to become prominent in this art. Received awards at Paris in 1885, and Gottenborg in 1891.
G. W. Linderoth: A hall clock, elegant in design and finish, was a very creditable piece of work; also small wall clocks in gilt cases, resembling those in French clocks, strong and well made. The dis- play of wall clocks in gilt cases and in porcelain cases beautifully designed, was particularly remarkable. An eight-day clock in tke dome of the Swedish Government building was also of good constnn;- tion and finish.
RUSSIA.
N. N. Makarovsky exhibited a clock for keeping the time of workmen ; also a dining-room clock, both very creditably made»
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HYGIENE AND SANITATION.
Miss ANNESLEY KEISTEALY. Judge.
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HYGIENE AND SANITATION.
By Miss Anneslby Kenealy,
Judge of Awards in the Hygienic Department; Lecturer to the NatioruU Health Society; Lecturer on Technical Education to the British County OouncilSy etc.
'Tis life, not death for which we pant; 'Tis life whereof our news are scant, More life and fuller that we want.
It will readily be conceded that of all the exhibits set forth in the World's Fair at Chicago, there is no department which bears so directly upon human good and human happiness as its great and important department of hygiene and sanitation. Vast business inter- ests are involved in many of the exhibits, and wonderful developments of steam and electricity are shown; and as the sociology of to-day demands that commercial enterprise shall go hand in hand with human need we see much ingenuity displayed in inventions and machines of a practical and labor-saving type, whereby the burdens of the world may be lightened and its yokes made easy. Such assist and further man's progress, but it is hygiene which, by pointing the way, has shown the lines along which these should travel.
The prosperity of a nation consists not so much in its wealth as in the health, happiness, and efficiency of its workers. So that any improvement and development of life conditions may well be regarded as the storing of a national reserve fund which is incomparably more valuable, far and wide reaching in its results than a mere surplus of rev- enue. And it has been found that sanitation and wholesome surround- ings by their effect upon the physique and productive capacity of the individuals affected add substantially to the working value of a popula- tion. The relation between health and wealth is absolute and infallible.
Let me now consider briefly such exhibits in the Chicago World's Fair as have seemed to me to place themselves in a superexcellent class. The Pennsylvania State board of health in its plans of improved tene- ment bouses shows that the artisan need no longer struggle for the birthright of every human being — the opportunity of a decent habita- tion; some degree of privacy, fresh air, light, and sunshine— for such are here proved to be within his reach. In the models shown he has all these advantages combined with a degree of sightliness and oma-
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mentation that will help to build up some beauty of mind at the same time that the hygienic conditions of his dwelling will raise his health standard and add to his happiness as a man and his efficiency as a worker. A great advance is shown in the construction of these arti- san dwellings, which are excellent examples of modern sanitation. With plans such as these to hand, it will soon be counted a national disgrace that any country should permit its toilers — its "hewers of wood and drawers of water"— to crowd together in dark, unwhole- some "rabbit hutches" instead of advancing into the light of day and taking their just share of the benefits of nineteenth century science.
A moderate rental provides not only the proper number of rooms whereby the laws of human decency may be observed, but also affords the luxury of "a flower bed and a playground for the children," A higher, healthier, and more vitalized life of its future generations will reward that legislature which enforces the adoption of these or similar plans on intending landlords.
To supply the needs of a more prosperous class, we have a model workingman's house built on behalf of the Philadelphia County Women's Committee, and almost side by side with the cliff dwellers exhibit we find a workingman's cottage erected by the Improved Dwelling Company, of New York. What a contrast the two present! What an evolution in thought and human need is shown.
From far off Japan is sounded a keynote of health's spreading gos- pel in the form of an excellent model of marine disinfection and quarantine. Owing to the frequent importation of cholera from neighboring countries through its seaports, the Japanese Government has established, since 1879, six quarantine stations for the inspection of vessels and the disinfection of passengers and cargo from infected ports. By earlier regulations the inspection rules came into force only upon receiving information that cholera had broken out in foreign countries; but, as the report quaintly puts it, ''There have been instances when the germ of the epidemic found its way into our har- bors before the rumor that it had broken out reached us." Hence the surveillance of vessels from "suspected localities" has been made compulsory. Japan also contributes the rules and history of its Red Cross Society. This society originated from the necessities of the position during the Kajeshina insurrection of 1877, at which time some excellent work was done by its agents in aid of the sick and wounded. The nature of the work is shown by a comprehensive chart, and like- wise by a report dealing with the action of the society in times of peace. Valuable assistance is shown to have been given to sufferers from shipwreck, earthquakes, and in national disasters accompanied by suffering or loss of life.
The system of maritime sanitation inaugurated by the Louisiana State board of health is shown by a very complete model demonstrating
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the methods by which disease is excluded from the State by disinfec- tion and fumigation at the river quarantine station below New Orleans. By the excellent methods adopted the complete purification of the vessels, passengers, and cargo is insured without unnecessary deten- tion or inconvenience. The report states that the board has thus succeeded '' in keeping out foreign pestilence and at the same time has fostered the commerce of its State and section to a gratifying extent."
In the department of public health there is an excellent showing of the work carried on by the various State health boards in the solution of vexed problems relating to sanitation and hygiene.
The State board of health of Massachusetts exhibits charts illustra- tive of valuable and extensive research work relating to diseases and epidemics, comparative mortality, and the influence of population upon public health. An act of the legislature passed in 1886 author- ized this board to examine the domestic water supplies of the State, to take over complete control of these and the inland water supplies of Massachusetts, and to conduct experirtients for determining the best methods of purifying sewage. With this object the Lawrence experiment station was established — being the first of its kind in the United States — and this station has made important contributions to the science of pure water supply and the prevention of water contam- ination by sewage. An interesting model of the station is shown, with photographs, charts, sand beds sewages, sections of filter beds, and other apparatus illustrating its various departments of work.
In the food and dr}"^ adulteration department this board makes a very interesting subsection showing the means whereby the public is pro- tected against the sale of harmful and adulterated food products. The board has also done progressive work in connection with the regulation of offensive trades, and has carried on investigations bear- ing on the sale and uses of opium; the control of infectious diseases and malarial fever; the dealing with intemperance, and many other kindred branches of hygiene affecting the moral and physical welfare of peoples.
The Michigan State board of health exhibits some suggestive vital statistics in the f onri of charts and pamphlets illustrating the prevalence of diseases in Michigan during different years, the fluctuations in mortality, and general statistics with regard to the health conditions of the State. Some very interesting diagrams are shown exhibiting the influence of meteorological conditions on various forms of disease and the effect of the velocity of wind on diphtheria epidemics. Very significant and satisfactory results of the work of the board appear in the tables of comparison of death rates in Michigan from infectious and preventible diseases before and since the establishment of the State board of health.
The Illinois State board of health exhibits tables and diagrams illus-
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trative of the zymotic disc&scs prevalent in Chicago during the years 1891, 1892, and 1893; it points to the causes and 8ugge8t8 the remedies. The investigation was begun in the winter of 1891-92 during an epi- demic of enteric fever in the city of Chicago — an epidemic which caused considerable anxiety and was productive of much ominous prophecy regardincf the amount of disease likely to be experienced during the World's Fair of 1893. There is no doubt but that the public attention then called to the health conditions of the city, has prevented many foreigners from visiting the Exhibition. Fortunately the loudly predicted outbreaks of typhoid and cholera consequent on the ingress of so many strangers and their inevitable overcrowding have proved themselves to have been l>aseless. Contrary to all expec- tation the health of the city has been exceptionally good, and the sani- tary arrangements and general hygienic standard have been in marked contrast to the condition of affairs which obtained in Philadelphia during the Centennial.
The sanitation of the " White City" itselt was an important subject, and*has been most satisfa<^;torily dealt with. In the artistic setting of the grounds, in the lagoons with their picturesque gondolas and gondoliers, we have more than the beautias of old Venice — and we find them combined with health. In most of the old towns of Europe the picturesque and the unhealth}?^ are indissolubly combined. Chicago has shown that art and hygiene may go hand in hand.
The sanitation of the Fair and the provisions made for public health and comfort are bfeyond all praise. A pure-water supply was insured by the establishment all over the grounds of sterilized water tanks, from which the public might drink without suspicion and without harm. The system of purification by chemical precipitation has been applied to the sewage of Jackson Park with very encouraging results. At the same time a series of experiments has been carried out under the direc- tion of Mr. Allen Hazen, of the Lawrence experiment station, as to the best chemicals which may be employed as precipitating agents. The conclusion of these experiments is looked forward to with great interest, and will, it is thought, be of much value in determining many impor- tant points with regard to the most efficient and economical method of sewage treatment.
In the department of agriculture the results of protective supervision with regard to the diseases of cattle and the prevention of animal epi- demics are shown by charts and statistics. These give the dates of entry of pleuro-pneumonia into the various counties and the means taken to establish quarantine lines, and so to prevent this and the dis- ease known as "Southern" or "Texas" cattle fever.
In class 829 of group 147 the commissioners of sewers of the city of London exhibit a model demonstrating an efficient system of street cleaning and the treatment and disposal of sewage. With this may
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be mentioned a model of the admii-able crematorium at Woking, Eng- land, for the hygienic disposal of the dead. And notice is deservedly made of the Engle Sanitary Cremation Company, of Des Moines, Iowa, for their excellent scheme of garbage cremation as applied to the destruction of household waste and their method of dealing "with the excreta, waste, and infected material at medical schools and hospitals in an entirely sanitary manner, with no escape of disease germs," dis- posing of the total pi'oduction of garbage, refuse, dead animals, and miscellaneous waste of cities and towns without nuisance, with no escape of fumes and in a speedy, economical, and satisfactory way."
The models and photographs of abattoirs and dust cart from the New York Ladies' Health Protective Association are worthy of atten- tion, showing, as they do, improvement where improvement was sorely needed.
The exhibit of the Battle Creek Sanitarium is a very important con- tribution to sanitary science. It is an almost perfect exhibition of what a modern sanitarium should be. The models of the buildings are evidences of the skill that has been bestowed upon the construc- tion, the heating, and the manifold hygienic needs of such an institu- tion; while the mode of treatment, the system of exercises, and methods of physical development show a material advance in the right direction. A series of popular charts illustrate with a simple but vigorous eloquence the dangers and results of improper living, unsuit- able clothing, intemperance, and the many vices of "civilized" condi- tions. Hygienic clothing, health foods, and many allied exhibits go to make up a most creditable display, and one which is calculated from the amount of attention it has attracted to develop a strong public interest in the vital question of health.
In class 829, group 147, Gennany is much to be commended for her excellent plans of public buildings constructed on lines essentially adapted to health and comfort. In her models of sanitaries for chil- dren, drawings of hospitals and insane asylums, construction, lighting, heating, and ventilating of the German parliaments, schools, town hall etc., she reaches the highest standard of h3^gienic architecture. These designs for hospitals and asylums are models for the world.
It is much to be regretted that but little has been shown in connec- tion with class 830 of group 147. This section embraces the hygiene of the workshop and factory, illustrations of diseases and deformities caused by unwholesome trades and occupations, and methods for obviating such distresses. More important fields of knowledge and research can scarcely exist, yet they show here as having been prac- tically passed over, as indeed have many other valuable departments of hygiene and sanitation. The absence of the element of commercial stimulus must necessarily limit the exhibits in a department largely representative of philanthropic operations.
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The necessary expenditure involved in such displays can not easily be spared by those on whom charity is making exhaustive demands. For this reason the hospital world is by no means exhaustively represented.
Notable among the hospital exhibits is that of the Johns Hopkins Hospital at Baltimore, an institution which contributes in a most pro- gressive spirit to the interest of this section. In the models and photographs shown it is evident that the construction and methods of this hospital approach perfection as nearly as is possible, according to our present light.
The McLean Hospital for the treatment of the insane is also an excellent type of such an asylum. This was one of the first institu- tions which established a school for training nurses in work among the insane — a valijp,ble step in the right direction. The scheme of treatment laid down is admirable; gj^mnastics, billiards, and various recreations, indoor and out, are CvStablished with good results, every effort being made to bring the patients under a refined and homelike influence, such as must lighten the miseries, if not materially better- ing the mental condition.
The British nursing section includes a very complete collection of sick-room furniture, hoj?pital uniforms, invalid appliances, and com- forts for institution, district, and home use, and is an admirable type of what such an exhibit should be. The growth and development of nursing from a crude art into a completed science is very strikingly shown, while man}^ interesting relics and mementoes of Florence Nightingale, Sister Dora, and other pioneers of skilled nursing lend a personal interest to the display, which is one of its most attractive features. The president of this department, Mrs. Bedford Fenwick, is much to be congratulated on having contributed to the Fair so scientific and advanced a presentment of the modern art of nursing.
Note must also be made of Miss Kate Marsden's beneficent scheme for the establishment of leper colonies in Liberia for the reception and care of sufferers who at present are practically houseless and homeless. The models of the proposed buildings aroused much popular attention. The ambulance system as applied to the Fair grounds, whereby sufferers from accident, prostration, and faintness, might be immediately remov^ed and cared for is worthy of the highest praise. The scheme was admi- rable in conception and was carried out with perfection of detail and enthusiasm of spirit on the part of the workers.
The establishment of hospital substations in convenient parts of the grounds for the reception and treatment of patients was shown from the number of cases dealt with to be a necessary, wise, and humane provision on the part of the authorities. Some thousands of patients were admitted and treated in the emergency hospital during the six months of the Fair. At the homeopathic headquarters, the Illinois Training School, and the office of the St. John's Ambulance Society of
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England excellent assistance was daily rendered to large numbers of persons overcome by heat and suflfering from the accidents and ailments incidental to overcrowding and fatigue.
In conclusion I would add that I regard it as a high privilege to have been officially associated with the World's Fair, and as a great addition to that privilege to have been iovited to contribute this history of the section to which I was attached. My only regret is that the pleasant office was not intrusted to one who might have done greater justice to the merits of this department of the greatest Exposition the world can ever hope to see.
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INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION OTHER THAN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC.
BV
J. H. GhORE, Judge.
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INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION OTHER THAN ELECTRICAL AND
MAGNETIC.
By J. H. Gore, Judge.
Instruments for scientific measurement may be classified as follows: Instruments for facilitating arithmetical and geometrical calculations, mechanical measuring appliances, surveying and engineering instru- ments, meteorological instruments, horological devices, instruments for measurements of heat, and optical instruments.
INSTRUMENTS FOR CALCULATION.
The past decade has witnessed nothing more than unimportant changes in the instruments of this class, none of which can be regarded as offering improvements upon the efficient arithmometers of Thomas and of Colmar. Grimme, of Braunschweig, exhibited a compact machine for simple computations, while Blanc showed an apparatus for logarithmic computations, andKloth, of Osnabruck, had an ingeni- ous device for the determination of the area of a triangle. It consisted of a plate of transparent celluloid, upon which was drawn a hyperbolic
curve whose equation was -^=a constant. By placing this plate over
the triangle so that the origin coincided with one vertex and the axis of X with the base, the reading on the curve corresponding to the alti- tude gave the area, approximately.
Several planimeters were shown, none presenting marked novelties, except a cartometer made by Tesdorpf , of Stuttgart, which appears to combine simplicity and accuracy. With it lines can be traced back- ward and forward without interruption, the wheels being thrown in or out of gear according to the direction in which the apparatus is made to follow the lines. The absolute length results immediately from the arithmetic mean multiplied by a factor which is constant for each instrument.
BIECHANICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.
Included in this class are a series of instruments of recent origin known as seismometers, for measuring the direction and amount of earthquake disturbances. The newest type of seismometers, especially the perfected form of Professor Milne, not only measures but records
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its measurements. Especial attention is paid to seismological investi- gations in Japan, and, as might Y>e expected, the exhibit of instruments of this class from Japan was extensive and important, (yhronographs for recording minute intervals of time were exhibited by several makers. The only feature noticeably new is the introduction of rapidly acting electro-magnetic tracers with a view to reduce the errors of observation.
SaegmuUer, of Washington, showed a compact chronograph which possessed the ability to change its stroke from seconds to double seconds at the will of the observer. It was also provided with a gravity gov- ernor, which insured the desired uniformity of rate.
Professor Hough exhibited a printing chronograph of a form pre- viously described.
Balances in great variety were shown, each striving to embody the advantages of precision, stability, and economy of time. Short beams were quite the rule, and various damping devices employed to bring about a dead-beat motion, thereby reducing the reading time to the minimum.
Bunge, of Hamburg, exhibited a form of balance for heavy loads, in which the pans are skeletons in order to reduce the effects of the cur- rents of air. He also had a smaller analytical balance, with reading tel- escope, with arrangement for mechanically charging or discharging the weight pan, without opening the casing. By means of sliding carriers having the values of the respective weights marked on them, each weight may be placed exactlj^ in the center of the pan, which consists of 17 concentric brackets arranged one above the other; the mechan- ism is such that no vibration, friction, or accidental dropping of weights can take take place. By turning a crank forward the frame supporting the carriers descends, the carrier is liberated and may be withdrawn from under the weight. The balance is thrown into action by turning the crank in the opposite direction. As in this case the pointer swings out only 1 degree per milligram, the tenths of a milligram may be read off in the telescope directly and the hundredths may be esti- mated. The rapidity of the oscillations has, therefore, in this balance been reduced in such a way that it is to that of an equally sensible short-beam balance in the ratio of 1 : vTo. The pan for the weighing charge is made of rock crystal. The rider slide is accurately notched on the dividing engine. The pointer is of a triangular form, to obviate vibration. Length of beam, 13 centimeters; sensibility, 0.05 milligram.
The United States Coast Survey also showed some balances, which will be referred to later on.
Cathetometers, or instruments for measuring heights of points above a fixed plane, were represented by two specimens, one from the Geneva Company and the other from G. Standinger & Co., of Giessen. The latter was provided with bronze prism, solid silver
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divided scale 1 meter in length, and an inclinable telescope and level. The correction of the telescope, due to errors in the prism, is made on the sliding piece above the focusing point, in this way compensating the errors of the prism. The prism and eccentric parts are counter- poised and the whole revolves on a vertical axle.
Hydrostatic instruments were exhibited by the German bureau of standards, though nothing especially novel was shown, except Siemen's alcoholometer, which measured and registered the strength of spirits passing through and at the same time meaj3ured and recorded the amount of the same. The connections of this apparatus with the still and the dials being under the absolute control of the revenue officers, it makes false returns and spurious distillations impossible. In this connection reference must be made to the extensive and important publications of this institution.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS.
All instruments of this class on exhibition gave evidence of the ^ame tendency. Lightness and stability of parts, a reduction in the size of circles made possible by improvements in graduating and reading circles, and an increase in the light-gathering power of the telescopes are some of the directions along which the improvements are made. For a time it was hoped that aluminum would be just the metal to furnish the dual qualities of lightness and rigidity, but a very little experience sufficed to show that the hope would not be realized. However, it is playing a somewhat important part in some of its alloys. Phosphor-bronze was used in many instruments for wearing surfaces.
The most conspicuous contrast shown was along the line of theodo- lites, transits, etc., when comparing the general American model with the German model. The former is more compact, the circle is nearer the tripod head, and the vertical axis, even when long, extends downward sometimes below the top of the head.
The most marked improvements shown were: A "Cleps," by Sal- moii*aghi, of Milan, which was a transit with the horizontal and verti- cal circles inclosed within a box, and readings made by means of microscopes; rapid-leveling tripod heads, by Buff & Berger, of Bos- ton, and SaegmuUor, of Washington; superior drawing instruments of Alteneder, of Philadelphia; and the cylindrical and cone-shaped drawing instruments of Riefler, of Munich. The variety and general excellence of the large displays of Queen & Co., of Philadelphia; W. & L. E. Gurley, of Tro}^; Manasse, of Chicago; Keuffel & Esser, of New York; and especially the large, well-arranged, and carefully cat- alogued collection of instruments brought together and installed by the German Society of Optics and Mechanics; and a tachygrapho meter, by Tesdorpf, of Stuttgart. This instrument, intended for
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speedily workiDg out general and detailed plans, solves automatically, by purely graphical means, those problems which ordinarily have to be worked out by calculation. It dispenses with the calculation of the coordinates of the position of the rods and the horizontal dis- tances from the center of the instrument to the rod, and also the absolute elevations above sea level are directly projected without the assistance of tables or slide rules. Then, by slightly pressing upon the needle apparatus, the readings are transferred to the paper to any desired scale.
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
The only marked advance shown by exhibits in this class was in the direction of improved self-recording devices. This was especially noticeable in the barometers, thermometers, and barographs of Dar- ton, of London; Watson, of London; and Fuess, of Steglitz. How- ever, it must be said that the aspirationspsychrometer of Assmann is not only new but valuable, in that it enables one to determine at once, without computation, both the temperature and the moisture of the air.
The Weather Bureau of the United States exhibited at work all of the instruments used in meteorological investigations and observation. It also made regular predictions of weather and printed in its own building the daily weather chart.
The German Meteorological Institute showed a complete set of its publications and a set of its routine instruments.
HOROLOGICAL DEVICES.
Although horology does not fall strictly within the classes here dis- cussed, still three exhibits were assigned to us. The first was an interesting series of historical ship chronometers, including one that was wrecked at Samoa, one used on the Hall expedition, and one that Greely carried to the f artherest north. In addition to these were sets of the parts of chronometers and also a Seth Thomas astronomical clock. The next was an extensive exhibit of the Self- Winding Clock Com- pany of New York, showing clocks in which at regular intervals the clock itself turned an electric current into a motor. This motor run- ning rapidly for a short period wound up a spring of sufficient tension to inin the clock for another period. They also exhibited programme clocks so devised that bells would be rung according to any prear- ranged schedule, and clocks which rang chimes by being provided with a cylinder put in motion at the hour and half -hour. Eiach cylinder was fitted with brushes disposed in such a way that each brush, in passing a fixed point, turned on the circuit, causing its own electro- magnet to strike a hammer against a sonorous tube or bell. The other exhibit of this class was the Riefler mercurial compensating pendulum and an escapement by the same maker and inventor. The former con- sists of a steel tube, 16 mm. bore and 1 mm. thickness, tilled with
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mercury to about two-thirds its length. It has further a metal bob \ireighing several kilograms and shaped to cut the air. Below the bob are disc-shaped weights, attached by screws, for correcting the compen- sation. By elaborate calculations involving the coefficients of expansion for steel and mercury and the moments of inertia of the various parts, the weight of the bulb has been determined wit^ such accuracy that Director Seeliger felt impelled to conclude his report on the perform- ance of one of these pendulums with the following words:
From the table of rates extracted from the records of this observatory it appears that with a variation of temperature up to 30° C, no influence worth mentioning on the rate of the clock can be perceived. It is therefore probable that the new pendu- lum answers all requirements in as high a degree as is ever likely to be attained. A similar perfection has only exceptionally been attained by the ordinary compensa- tions, and even then only after long series of experiments, and, strictly speaking, only by accident, while the distinguished success of this pendulum is based on calcu- lations which may be made in advance with almost absolute accuracy. I therefore feel convinced that this new pendulum of Mr. Riefler's is a most important and wel6ome progress.
With reference to the escapement, it may be said that it is adapted to all kinds of clocks of precision, and from experiment it appears to secure the greatest possible accuracy. In this esciapement the pendu- lum swings with perfect freedom, being connected with the clockwork solely through the pendulum spring from which it receives the impulse. The impulse is communicated by the wheel work bending the pendulum spring a little at each oscillation of the pendulum, which produces a slight tension in the spring. This tension force of the pendulum spring gives the pendulum the impulse. As this bend- ing takes place round an axis which is identical with the axis of oscil- lation of the pendulum, and further occurs every time almost at the moment in which the pendulum is swinging through the dead point, we gain not only the perfect freedom of the pendulum, but also the great advantage that irregularities in the communication of force from the wheel work and in the resistances to escape can exert no detri- mental influence on the uniformity of the motion of the clock, which is not only in accordance with scientific theory, but has been practi- cally proved by the excellent motion of numerous astronomical, turret, and other clocks provided with this escapement.
INSTRUMENTS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF HEAT.
Evidence was everywhere apparent of improvements in thermome- ters, especially in the selection of a kind of glass which after heating shows no residual expansion. The establishing of bureaus for testing thermometers at Kew, Paris, Berlin, and Ilmenan has given an impulse to thermometry which manufacturers have not been slow to take advantage of. Here again we find exhibits of Darton, of London, the Grand Ducal Standardizing Institute at Ilmenan, Ube, of Zerbst- Anhalt, and Schultze, of Berlin. The substitution of the liquid alloy
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of potassium and sodium in place of mercury has enabled makers to construct thermometers reading up to 500^ C. No attempt was made to exhibit metallic thermometers nor thermo-electric pyrometer. In this connection mention should be made of the standards of length and graduating engine of Prof. W. A. Rogei-s, of Colby University. The latter makes it possible to graduate a circle and to investigate the errors of gi-aduation, while the comparator gives promise of deter- mining one length in terms of another to any degree of exactness.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
The wealth of exhibits along this line was very marked, and the general excellence was of a high grade. American makers showed . lenses of their own casting and gi'inding, microscopes and telescopes with novel and original mountings, and opthalmic instruments with many improvements. European manufacturers have continued in their general advance, and now progress has ceased to be marked by geographic boundaries. However, it must be said that a great stim- ulus has been furnished by Messrs. Zeiss, of Jena, in the introduction of their ^'apoechromatic" lenses, and the use of a new glass made by Schott, of Jena. This glass is the outcome of scientific investigations on the correlation of the optical properties of glass and its chemical constitution, which formed the starting point of the smelting of glass in Jena, have at the same time resulted in a considerable extension of the number of glasses which may be applied for purposes of practical optics, and opticians have now a series of new types at their command which vary considerably from the older crowns and flints with respect to refractive and dispersive power. This extension of the range of available material led in several provinces of piuctical optics to valua- ble improvements, which natui'ally originated in Germany. Telescop- ical optics is that department which hitherto has derived the least benefit from the new glasses. Partly on account of the difficulties attending, with some of the new glasses, the production of large disks sufficiently free from defects, and partly because of the aptitude of these fusions to yield to atmospheric influences, it has been deemed wiser to continue to employ the older types of crown and flint glass for the manufacture of telescopic objectives. In the construction of photographic lenses, and of the microscope, the greatly extended range in the refractive and dispersive powers of the glasses has in the meantime given rise to many practical successes in valuable combina- tions, which with the older material could not possibly be produced. In the case of photographic lenses, this success is mainly due to the fact that with the new glasses achromatic doublets may be (constructed in which at will the positive or the negative member may be made to have the higher refractive index, whilst with the older material achro- matization of a collective lens always assigned the higher refractive
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index to the negative, in the case of a dispersive lens to the positive member. The removal of this limitation, which was mainly effected by the introduction of the Jena baryta glasses, has resulted in a series of new photographic combinations. In the case of the microscope the conditions for the utilization of the progress made in glass smelting were much more favorable; for in this case also such fusions could be employed which are obtainable only in relatively small quantities, and furthermore the material is in a much less degree required to resist external influences. Consequently, even such glasses as the phosphate and baryta glasses have been largely employed in microscopic lenses, though, for those two considemtions, entirely out of place in other combinations. These new glass types have furnished the means for vast improvements in the chromatic and spherical correction of micro- scope lenses and in the increase of the magnifying power of the ocular. The same general improvements were noticeable in the opthalmic exhibits of Jung, of Heidelberg, Lydow, of Berlin, the Augenklink of the German Universities, Baush & Lomb, of Rochester, The Geneva Company, of Chicago, and the Grundlach Company, of Rochester. In several instances these makers showed microscopes, as did Ross, of Lon- don. The improvements may be summarized under more accurate focusing devices by using oblique i*achet screws, improved objectives, and devices for illumination and polarization.
The projection apparatus has now become a valuable adjunct to all forms of instruction, and here again the makers have kept pace with the wants of the users, as can be seen in the exhibits of Queen & Co., of Philadelphia, the Mcintosh Company, of Chicago, and McAllister, of New York.
Because of the great importance of spectrum analysis a large variety of spectroscopes were exhibited, equipped for a great variety of work, and in some cases provided with multiple prisms. In this line Schmidt and Haensch, of Berlin, were large exhibitors.
On account of the great progress made by J. A. Brashear, of Alle- gheny, Pa., in the manufacture of accurate optical instruments, it may be well to give a somewhat detailed account of his exhibit and his methods of manufacture.