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DICTIONARY
OF THE
BIBLE
EDITED BY
JAMES HASTINGS, D.D.
WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF
JOHN A. SELBIE, D.D.
AND WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
JOHN C. LAMBERT, D.D.
AND OF
SHAILER MATHEWS, D.D.
PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AND DEAN OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1909
CoPYKiaHT, 1909. ET
CHARLES SCEIBNEE'S SONS Published January, 1909
PREFACE
The Editor's aim has been to provide a complete and independent Dictionary op the Bible in a single volume and abreast of present-day scholarship.
1. Complete. — The Dictionary gives an account of all the contents of the Bible, the articles being as numerous as in the largest dictionaries, but written to a different scale. The Index of the Dictionary of the Bible in five volumes by the same Editor has been taken as basis, and such additions made to it as the latest research has suggested. The persons, places, and important events in the Bible are described. There are articles on the Biblical theology and ethics, on the antiquities, and on the languages — English as well as Hebrew and Greek. The books of the Bible are carefully explained in their origin, authorship, and contents; and full account is taken of the results of literary criticism and archseological discovery.
2. Independent. — The Dictionary is not a condensation of the five-volume Dictionary. It is not based upon it or upon any other dictionary. It is a new and independent work. All the signed, and most of the unsigned, articles are written afresh, and (with few exceptions) by different authors from those who treated the same subjects in the larger Dictionary. Even when the wording of the large Dictionary has been retained, as in the case, for example, of proper names of minor importance, every statement has been verified anew. The single-volume Dictionary wiU thus be found as fresh and full of life as the largest dictionaries are.
3. In a single volume. — ^This is to bring the contents of the Bible, in accordance with present scholarship, within reach of those who have not the means to buy or the knowledge to use the Dic- tionary in five volumes. This Dictionary contains no Hebrew or Greek except in transliteration. It is however, a large volume, and it would have been larger had not the utmost care been taken to prevent overlapping. For the great subjects are not treated with that excessive brevity which makes single-volume dictionaries often so disappointing. The space has been so carefully hus- banded that it has been found possible to allow 24 pages to the article on Israel; 23 pages to the article on Jesus Christ; and half that number to a further article on the Person or Christ. There is another way in which space has been saved. The whole subject of Magic Divination and Sorcery for example, has been dealt with in a single article. That article includes many sub-topics each of which is found in its own place, with a cross-reference to this comprehensive article- and when the word occurs in this article it is printed in black type, so that no time may be lost in searching for it.
4. Abreast of present Scholarship. — That is to say, of the average scholarship of its day. There are many reasons why a Dictionary of the Bible should not take up an extreme position on either side But the reason which has proved to be most conclusive, is the impossibility of getting the whole of the work done satisfactorily by either very advanced or very conservative scholars. They are not numerous enough. And there could be no satisfaction in entrusting work to men who were chosen for any other reason than their knowledge of the subject.
* * The Editor would call attention to the Additional Note on the article Assyria and Babylonia, which will be found at the end of the volume.
V
MAPS
I. The Ancient East ........ Facing page xvi
II. The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel ..... " 400
III. Palestine in the Time op Christ ..... " 448
IV. St. Paul's Journeys ........ " 688
ABBREVIATIONS
I. General
Alex. = Alexandrian.
Apoc.= Apocalypse, Apocalyptic.
Apocr. = Apocrypha, Apocryphal.
Aq. =Aqulla.
Arab. = Arabic.
Aram. =Aramaic.
Assyr. = Assyrian.
AV= Authorized Version.
AVm = Authorized Version margin.
Bab. = Babylonian.
c=circa, about.
cf. = compare; c<.= contrast.
D =Deuteronomist.
E=Elohist.
edd. = editions or editors.
EV =English Version.
f. =and following verse or page: as Ac 10'"-.
fl. =and following verses or pages: as Mt ll^ss..
H =Law of Holiness.
Hex. = Hexateuch.
J = Jahwist.
J" = Jahweh.
Jos. =Josephus.
LXX — Septuagint.
MT=Massoretio Text.
n. =note.
NT = New Testament.
0T=01d Testament.
P= Priestly Narrative.
Pr. Bk. — Prayer Book.
R =Redactor.
RV=Revised Version.
RVm = Revised Version margin.
TR=Textus Receptus.
tr. =translate or translation.
VSS -Versions.
Vulg. = Vulgate.
WH =Westcott and Hort's text.
II. Books of the Bible
Old Testament.
Gn = Genesis.
Ex = Exodus.
Lv= Leviticus.
Nu —Numbers.
Dt = Deuteronomy.
Jos = Joshua.
Jg = Judges.
Ru =Ruth.
1 S, 2 S = 1 and 2 Samuel.
1 K, 2 K = 1 and 2 Kings.
1 Ch, 2 Ch=l and 2
Chronicles. Ezr =Ezra. Neh =Nehemiah. Est = Esther. Job.
Ps= Psalms. Pr = Proverbs. Ec =Ecclesiastes.
Ca= Canticles. Is = Isaiah. Jer = Jeremiah. La = Lamentations. Ezk=Ezekiel. Dn= Daniel. Hos=Hosea. Jl = Joel. Am = Amos. Ob=Obadiah. Jon —Jonah. Mic—Micah. Nah=Nahum. Hab =Habakkuk. Zeph =Zephaniah. Hag=Haggai. Zee =Zechariah. Mal=Malachi.
Apocrypfia.
1 Es, 2 E3=l and 2 To=Tobit. Esdras. Jth = Judith.
Ad. Est = Additions to Sus=Susanna.
Esther. Wis = Wisdom. Sir =Sirach or Ecclesi-
asticus. Bar=Baruch. Three =Song of the Three
Children.
Bel =Bel and the Dragon. Pr. Man = Prayer of
Manasses. 1 Mac, 2 Mac = l and 2
Maccabees.
New Testament.
Mt= Matthew. Mk = Mark. Lk = Luke. Jn = John. Ac = Acts. Ro =:Romans. 1 Co, 2 Co = l and 2 Co- rinthians. Gal =Galatians. Eph — Ephesians. Ph=Philippians. Col =Colossians.
1 Th, 2 Th = l and 2
Thessalonians. lTi,2Ti=]and2Timothy. Tit. =Titus. Philem = Philemon. He = Hebrews. Ja = James.
IP, 2 P = l and 2 Peter. 1 Jn, 2 Jn, 3 Jn = l, 2,
and 3 John. Jude. Rev =Bevelation.
III. For the Literatdre
.<lflT= Ancient Hebrew Tradition. XJrA= American Journal of Theology. AT=Altes Testament. jBffP= Biblical Researches in Palestine. COT =Cuneiform Inscriptions and the OT,
DB= Dictionary of the Bible.
DCG —Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels.
EBi = Encyclopaedia Biblica.
EBr -"Encyclopsedia Britannica.
EGT =Expositor's Greek Testament.
ABBREVIATIONS
JBipr =Exposltory Times.
G4P =Geographie des alten Paiastina.
GGA =Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen.
GGAT =Nachrichten der konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu GOttingen.
C/y =Geschiohte des JUdischen Volkes.
Gr/=Geschiehte des Volkes Israel.
ifCJlf= Higher Criticism and the Monuments.
HGHL —Historical Geography of Holy Land.
H/P=History of the Jewish People.
HPN = Hebrew Proper Names.
HWB =HandwOrterbuch.
/CC= International Critical Commentary.
JAOS = Journ. of the Amer. Oriental Society.
JBI,=Journ. of Biblical Literatm'e.
./£= Jewish Encyclopedia.
JOK= Jewish Quarterly Review.
JThSt = Journal of Theological Studies.
KAT='D\e Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament.
KIB =Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek.
LB =The Land and the Book.
iOr-Introd. to the Literature of the Old Testa- ment.
JlfiVDP7 = Mittheil. u. Nachrichten d. Deutch. Pal.-
Vereins. Or^C =The Old Test, in the Jewish Church. PB -Polychrome Bible. jPfii? —Palestine Exploration Fund. PBFSi -Quarterly Statement of the same. PSBA -Proceedings of Soc. of Bibl. Archeology. PRE =Real-Encykl. far protest. Theol. und Kirche KB —Revue Biblique, RE -Realencyklopadie. REJ —Revue des £tudes Juives. iJP- Records of the Past. RS —Religion of the Semites. RWB -RealwOrterbuch. 5507" -Sacred Books of Old Testament. 5P— Sinai and Palestine.
SH'P— Memoirs of the Survey of W. Palestine, rs —Texts and Studies.
TSBA -Transactions of Soc. of Bibl. Archjeology. T U — Texte und Untersuchungen. If A/ —Western Asiatic Inscriptions. Z^riT-Zeitschrift far die Alttest. Wissenschaft. ZiVriT-Zeitschrift fUr die Neutest. Wissenschaft.
A small superior number designates the particular edition of the work referred to: as KAT^, LOT'.
AUTHORS OF ARTICLES
IN THIS DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE
Rev. Walter Frederick Adenet, D.D., Principal of ttie Lancashire College, Manchester.
Rev. John S. Banks, D.D., Professor of Theology in the Headingley College, Leeds.
Rev. George A. Barton, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic Languages in Bryn Mawr College,
Rev. William Henry Bennett, D.D., Litt.D., Pro- fessor of Old Testament Exegesis in Hackney College and New College, London.
Rev. George Ricker Berry, D.D., Professor of Semitic Languages in Colgate University, New York.
Rev. A. W. F. Blunt, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.
Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A., Late Hebrew Master at Merchant Taylors' School, London, Incum- bent of Linton, Ross.
Ph.D., Minister at
Rev. William F. Boyd, M.A., Methlick, Aberdeenshire.
Rev. A. E. Burn, M.A., D.D., Rector and Rural Dean of Handsworth, Birmingham, and Prebendary of Lichfield.
Rev. Ernest De Witt Burton, D.D., Professor of New Testament Interpretation in the University of Chicago.
Rev. George G. Cameron. D.D., Professor of Hebrew in the United Free Church College, Aberdeen.
Rev. John S. Clemens, B.A., B.D., Principal of Ran- moor College, Shefiield.
Rev. William F. Cobb, D.D., Rector of the Church of St. Ethelburga the Virgin, London.
Rev. H. F. B. Compston, M.A., Hebrew Lecturer and Tutor in King's College, London; Member of the Theological Board of Studies in the University of London.
Rev. James A. Ckaiq, D.D., Professor of Old Testament Interpretation in the University of Michigan.
Rev. T. Witton Davies, B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew in Bangor College.
Rev. W. T. Davison, M.A., D.D., Professor of Theology in Richmond Theological College, Surrey.
Adolf Deissmann, D.Th., D.D., Ord. Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Berlin.
Rev. S. R. Driver, D.D., Litt.D., Professor of Hebrew in the University of Oxford, and Canon of Christ Church.
Rev. E. A. Edghill, M.A., B.D., College of St. Saviour, Southwark.
Rev. Cyril W. Emmet, M.A., Vicar of West Hendred, Steventon.
Rev. W. Ewing, M.A., Minister at Edinburgh.
Rev. Robert A. Falconer, D. Litt., D.D., President of the University of Toronto.
Rev. George G. Findlay, M.A., D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature in the Headingley College, Leeds.
Rev. Henry Thatcher Fowler, D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and History in Brown University, Providence.
Rev. Kemper Fullerton, D.D., Professor of Old Testament Language and Literature in Oberlin College, Ohio.
Rev. Alfred E. Garvie, M.A., D.D., Principal of New College, London.
Rev. Owen H. Gates, Ph.D., Librarian and Instructor in Hebrew in Andover Theological Seminary.
Rev. James Giijsoy, D.D., Professor of Hebrew in the University of Aberdeen.
Rev. G. Buchanan Gray, M.A., D.D., Professor of Hebrew in Mansfield College, Oxford.
Rev. S. W. Green, M. A., Professor of Hebrew in Regent's Park College, London.
Rev. Charles T. P. Grierson, M.A., B.D., Canon of Down, and Rector of Seapatrick, Banbridge.
F. Ll. Griffith, M.A., F.S.A., Reader in Egyptology in the University of Oxford.
Rev. H. M. GwATKiN, M.A., D.D., Dixey Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Cambridge.
Rev. G. H. GwiLLiAM, B.D., Rector of Remenham, Henley.
Rev. D. A. Hayes, Ph.D., S.T.D., LL.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis in Garrett Biblical Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.
Henderson, B.A., Principal of Bristol
Rev. W. J. College.
G. F. Hill, M.A., Assistant Keeper of the Department of Coins and Medals in the British Museum, London.
AUTHORS OF ARTICLES
Rev. A. E. HiLLARD, M.A., D.D., High Master of St. Paul's School, London.
Rev. F. R. Montgomery Hitchcock, B.D., Rector ot Kinnitty, King's Co.
Rev. C. H. W. Johns, M.A., Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge.
Rev. D. M. Kay, M.A., D.D., Professor of Hebrew in the University of St. Andrews.
Rev. James A. Kelso, D.D., Professor of Old Testa- ment Exegesis in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny.
Rev. A. R. S. Kennedy, D.D., Professor of Hebrew in the University of Edinburgli.
F. G. Kenyon, M.A., D.Litt., Ph.D., of the Depart- ment of Manuscripts in the British Museum, London, Late Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Leonard W. King, M.A., F.S.A., of the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum, London.
Rev. G. A. Frank Knight, M.A., F.R.S.E., Minister at Perth.
Nicholas Koenio, M.A., University Fellow in Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New Yorli.
Rev. J. C. Lambert, M.A., D.D., Fenwick, Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels.
Rev. H. C. O. Lanchester, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. i
R. A. Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A., Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.
Rev. J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Toronto.
Rev.WiLLiAM M. Macdonald, M. a.. Minister at Foveran, Aberdeenshire.
Rev. George M. Mackie, M.A., D.D., Chaplain to the Church of Scotland at Beyrout, Syria.
Rev. Hugh R. Mackintosh, M.A., D.Phil., D.D., Pro- fessor of Systematic Theology in New College, Edin- burgh.
Right Rev. Arthur John Maclean, M.A., D.D., Bishop of Moray and Ross.
Rev. A. H. McNeile, B.D., Fellow and Dean of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.
Rev. D. S. Makgoliouth, M.A., D.Litt., Laudian Professor of Arabic in the University of Oxford.
Rev. John T. Marshall, M.A., D.D., Principal of the Baptist College, Manchester.
E. W. GuRNEY Masterman, M.D., F.R.G.S., Jerusalem, Syria.
Rev. J. Howard B. Masterman, M.A., Professor of History in the University of Birmingham, and Hon. Canon of Birmingham.
Rev. Shailer Mathews, D.D., Professor of Theology and Dean of the Divinity School in the University of Chicago.
Rev. J. H. Maude, M.A., Rector ot Hilgay, Downham Market.
Rev. R. Waddy Moss, M.A., D.D., Professor of System- atic Theology in Didsbury College, Manchester.
Rev. James Hope Moulton, M.A., D.Litt., Greenwood Professor of Hellenistic Greek in the Victoria Uni- versity of Manchester.
Rev. Wilfrid J. Moulton, M.A., Professor of Old Testament Languages and Literature in Headingley College, Leeds.
Rev. T. Allen Moxon, M.A., Vicar of Alfreton, Derby- shire.
Rev. Henry S. Nash, D.D., Professor in the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
Rev. W. M. Nesbit, M.A., B.D., Fellow ot Drew Theo- logical Seminary.
Theodor Noldeke, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor Emeritus in the University of Strassburg.
Rev. W. O. E. Oesterley, D.D.-, Organizing Secretary to the Parochial Missions to the Jews, and Lecturer to the Palestine Exploration Fund.
Rev. James Orr, D.D., Professor of Apologetics and Theology in the United Free Church College, Glasgow.
Rev. William P. Paterson, D.D., Professor of Divinity in the University of Edinburgh.
Rev. James Patrick, M.A., B.D., B.Sc, Minister at Edinburgh.
T. G. Pinches, LL.D., M.R.A.S., Lecturer in Assyrian at University College, London.
Rev. Ira M. Price, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature in the University of Chicago.
Late Rev. H. A. Redpath, M.A., Litt.D., Rector of St. Dunstan's in the East, London.
Rev. Frank Edward Robinson, B.A., Professor of Hebrew and Church History in the Baptist College, Bristol.
Rev. George L. Robinson, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Old Testament Literature in McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago.
Miss Ethel G. Romanes, Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford.
Rev. A. H. Sayoe, D.D., Litt.D., LL.D., Professor of Assyriology in the University of Oxford.
Rev. C. Anderson Scott, M.A., Professor of New Testament Literature in Westminster College, Cam- bridge.
Rev. James G. Simpson, M.A., Principal of the Clergy School, Leeds.
Rev. John Skinner, M.A., D.D., Principal ot West- minster College, Cambridge.
Rev. David Smith, M.A., D.D., Minister at Blairgowrie.
Rev. Henry P. Smith, M.A., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Old Testament Literature in Meadville Theological School.
Rev. John Merlin Powis Smith, D.D., Professor in the University of Chicago.
W. Taylor Smith, B.A., Sevenoaks, Kent.
Alexander Souter, M.A., Litt.D,, Professor of New Testament Exegesis in Mansfield College, Oxford.
Rev. J. H. Stevenson, D.D., Professor in Vanderbilt
University, Nashville.
Rev. MoRLEY Stevenson, M.A., Principal of Warrington Training College, and Canon of Liverpool.
Rev. Alexander Stewart, M.A., D.D., Principal ot St. Mary's College, and Professor of Systematic Theology in the University of St. Andrews.
AUTHORS OF ARTICLES
Rev. Robert H. Strachan, M.A., Minister at Elie.
Rev. A. W. Streane, D.D., Formerly Dean and Hebrew and Divinity Lecturer in Corpus Christl College, Cambridge.
Rev. John G. Tasker, D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and Exegesis in Handsworth College, Birmingham.
Rev. John Taylor, M. A., D.Litt., Vicar of Winchcombe.
Rev. R. Brtjce Taylor, M.A., Minister of St. John's Wood Presbyterian Church, London.
Rev. Milton Spencer Terry, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Christian Doctrine in the Garrett Biblical Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.
Rev. W. H. Griffith Thomas, D.D., Principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford.
Rev. G. W. Wade, D.D., Professor and Senior Tutor in St. David's College, Lampeter.
Rev. A. C. Welch, M.A., B.D., Minister at Glasgow.
Rev.H. L. WiLLETT, D.D., Dean of the Disciples' Divinity House in the University of Chicago.
Rev. J. R. Willis, B.D., Rector of Preban and Moyne, Co. Wicldow.
Herbert G. Wood, M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge.
Rev. F. H. Woods, B.D., Rector of Bainton, Late Fellow and Theological Lecturer of St. John's College, Oxford.
PEONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES
It will be generally agreed that some uniformity in the pronunciation of Scripture Proper Names is extremely desirable. One hears in church and elsewhere, not only what are obvious and demon- strable mispronunciations, but such variety in the mode of pronouncing many names as causes irritation and bewilderment. It is impossible to tell whether a speaker or reader is simply blundering along, or whether he is prepared to justify his pronunciation by reference to some authority, or to base it upon some intelligible principle. If after hearing a name pronounced in a way widely different from that to which we have been accustomed, we refer to some accessible authority, it is by no means improbable that it will be found to support the accentuation or enunciation of which we should previously have been inclined to disapprove.
It is less easy to see how the uniformity desiderated is to be brought about. A committee con- sisting of representative Biblical and Englisn scholars might draw out a list which would be accepted as a standard, on the assumption that individuals were prepared, for the sake of the desired uni- formity, to give up their own personal habits or preferences. It is certain that no authority less distinguished would be recognized. It has therefore been, no doubt, a wise decision on the part ■of the Editor of the present work not to indicate, as was at one time contemplated, the pronunciation of each proper name as it occurred, at any rate when any difficulty was likely to be experienced. This would simply have been to add another to the numerous, and too often discordant, authorities already existing. Instead, it has been thought better to prepare the way, in some degree, for an authoritative list by discussing briefly some of the principles which should govern its construction.
1. Divergence of authorities. — it may be well at the outset to illustrate that divergence of accessible authorities to which allusion has been made. For this purpose we shall select the four following lists: — (1) That of Professor T. K. Cheyne, D.D., of Oxford, originally contributed to the Queen's Printers' Teachers' Bible of 1877 (Eyre & Spottiswoode); (2) that contributed by Professor W. B. Stevenson, B.D., now of Glasgow, to the Supplementary Volume to Dr. Young's Analytical Concordance (George Adam Young & Co.); (3) that contained in the Appendix to Cassell's English Dictionary, edited by John Williams, M.A. (Cassell & Co.); (4) that contained in the Illustrated Bible Treasury, edited by Wm. Wright, D.D. (Nelson & Sons). The following names are thus given: —
Cheyne.
Abia'saph
Abina'dab
Ad'ramme'lech
Antipat'ris
Ba'al-pera'zim
Chedor'lao'mer
Debo'rah
Deda'nim
Em'maus
Eph'ratah
Habak'kuk
Hav'ilah
Haza'el
Ich'abod
Ja'haziel'
Mahalal'eel
Mattath'ias
Meri'bah
Nazarene'
Sennache'rib
Tir'hakah
Zeru'iah
Zohe'Ieth
Stevenson.
Ab'ia'saph
Ab'ina'dab
Adram'melech
Antipat'ris
Ba'al-per'azim
Che'dorlao'mer
Deb'orah
De'danim
Emma'us
Ephra'tah
Habak'kuk
Hav'ilah
Haz'ael
I'chabod
Jaha'ziel
Mahalal'eel
Mattathi'as
Meri'bah
Nazare'ne
Sennach'erib
Tirtia'kah
Zerui'ah
Zo'heleth
Williams.*
Abi'asaph
Abin'adab
Adram'melech
Antip'atris
Ba'al Per'azim
Chedorla'omer
Deb'orah
De'danim
Emma'us
Eph'ratah
Habak'kuk and Hab'akkuk
Havi'lah
Ha'zael
Ich'abod
Maha'laleel
Mattathi'as
Mer'ibah
Naz'arene
Sennach'erib
Tir'hakah
Zer'uiah
Zohel'eth
Wright.*
Abia'saph
Abina'dab
Adramme'lech
Antipa'tris
Ba'al-pera'zim
Chedorlao'mer
Debo'rah
Deda'nim
Em'maus
Ephra'tah
Habak'kuk
Havil'ah
Haza'el
I'chabod
Jahaz'iel
Mahalale'el
Mat'tathi'as
Meri'bah
Naz'arene
Sennach'erib
Tirha'kah
Zerui'ah
Zohe'Ieth
* As it is not stated by whom the lists in Xelson's and Cassell's publications were drawn up, the Editora' names are given as responsible for them.
PRONUNCIATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES
These examples might be greatly multiplied, particularly in the case of what might be termed more familiar names in regard to which there are two ruling modes of accentuation, as Aga'bus and Ag'abus, Ahime'lech and Ahim'elech, Bahu'rim and Bah'urim, Bath'sheba and Bathshe'ba, Ced'ron and Ce'dron, Mag'dalene and Magdale'ne, Peni'el and Pen'iel, Rehob'oam and Rehobo'am, Thaddae'us and Thad'daeus. An examination of the lists will show the very considerable extent of the variation which exists even among those who may be regarded as guides in the matter, and it will show also that a great part of the variation may be accounted for by the degree to which the Editors of the respective lists are disposed to give weight to the forms of the word in the original, or to what may be considered the popular and current pronunciation. This is indeed the crux of the matter.
2. Principles adopted. — In what follows we shall keep in view especially the contributions of Professor Cheyne and Professor Stevenson, each of whom explains in an introduction the principles on which he has sought to solve the problem presented; and perhaps we may be allowed once for all to acknowledge our obligations to these able and scholarly discussions. In reference to the point just referred to. Professor Cheyne says: —
' Strict accuracy is no doubt unattainable. In some cases (e.g. Moses, Aaron, Solomon, Isaac, Samuel, Jeremiah) the forms adopted by the Authorized Version are borrowed from the Septuagint through the medium of the Vulgate. Here the correct pronunciation would require an alteration of familiar names which would be quite intolerable. But even where the current forms are derived from the Hebrew, a strictly accurate pronunciation would offend by intro- ducing a dissonance into the rude but real harmony of our English speech. Besides, that quickness of ear which is necessary for reproducing foreign sounds is conspicuously wanting to most natives of England. Still, the prevalent system of pronouncing Biblical names seems unnecessarily wide of the mark. There is no occasion to offend so gratui- tously against the laws of Hebrew sound and composition asjwe do at present. Not a few of our mispronunciations of Hebrew names impede the comprehension of their meaning, especially in the case of names of religious significance, when the meaning is most fully fraught with instruction. A working compromise between pedantic precision and persistent mispronunciation is surely feasible.'
Professor Stevenson remarks, with reference to his list of Scripture Proper Names, that —
' It does not offer an absolute standard, for no such standard exists. The supreme authority in pronunciation is prevalent usage (among educated people). But the weakness of such an authority is specially clear in the case of Scripture names. Even names not uncommon are variously pronounced, and many are so unfamiliar that there is no ' ' usage " by which to decide. ... In actual speech unfamiliar words are pronounced as analogy suggests, uncon- sciously it may be. . . . There is no single court of appeal. In particular, the original pronunciation is not the only, nor perhaps the chief, influence. If it were better understood how impossible it is to pronounce Hebrew names as the ancient Hebrews did, there would be less temptation to lay stress on the original as the best guide. On the other hand, the closer the incorporation of Scripture names into English, the better; and this also is a consideration entitled to influence. . . . The principles here adopted are those which seem to express the English treatment of ancient foreign names which have become common property in the language.'
(1) New Testament. — ^The case is no doubt widely different with regard to the Old Testament as compared with the New. In the New Testament the Greek form of the name (including the transliteration of Hebrew names) may almost invariably be followed; thus, Aristobu'lus, Ar'temas, Diot'rephes, Epe'netus, Proch'orus, Tab'itha. The diphthong of the Authorized and Revised Versions justifies Thaddae'us rather than Thad'daeus. Cheyne and Stevenson both spell the name Thaddeus, the former accenting the first, and the latter the second, syllable. It is desirable to follow the Greek sometimes even in the face of fairly common usage, as by making Bethsa'-i-da a word of four syllables, and Ja-i'-rus a word of three. There are some peculiarities which have to be noticed, e.g. that final e is sounded in Bethphage, Gethsemane, Magdalene, but not in Nazarene, or Urbane. For Phcenice the R.V. reads Phoenix. Sos'thenes, again, is a word of three syllables. With some attention to these principles, of which the above are merely examples, the pronunciation of New Testament names should present little difficulty.
(2) Old Testament. — When we turn to the Old Testament we find ourselves in presence of a much more complicated problem. Here it is impossible to conform our pronunciation to that of the original language; yet if we are not to pronounce at haphazard, and follow each his own taste and habit, we must reflect upon the conditions, and frame at least general rules for our guidance. In the absence of a standard list of pronunciations constructed by experts of such authority that we might waive in favour of their dicta our personal predilections, there will, at the best, be considerable room for individual judgment. We do not aim, therefore, at doing more in the following observations than aid such judgment by showing the alternatives before it, and indicating the limits within which it may be profitably exercised.
'The supreme authority in pronunciation,' says Professor Stevenson, 'is prevalent usage (among educated people).' The difficulty in many cases is to determine what is prevalent usage and how far the education which is presumed to guide it has included the elements which would make it reliable in such a connexion. Prevalent usage itself may be educated and corrected, and the question is where the line shall be drawn between 'pedantic precision' and 'persistent mispronunciation' (to use Professor Cheyne's phrase), how much shall be conceded to a regard for the methods of the ancient Hebrews on the one side, and for those of the modem Britons on the other? This question is the more
PRONUNCIATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES
difficult to answer because the training and environment of even highly educated people differ so widely, and because what is prevalent in one circle is almost or altogether unknown in another.
Professor Cheyne suggests, as a guiding principle, the giving of some attention to the religious significance of proper names, particularly those which 'contain in some form the proper name of God in Hebrew.' With this laudable object, he, as a rule, shifts the accent in such names so as to bring their religious significance prominently before the reader. The practice, however, brings him into conflict with many undoubted cases of established usage. Professor Stevenson holds that the influences 'which must affect the treatment of Scripture names are — (1) The original pronunciation; (2) the characteristic tendencies of purely English speech; (3) the fixed customary pronunciation of certain words resembling others less common.' In applying the second of these principles — ^the characteristic tendencies of English speech — he appeals chiefly to analogy: —
' People naturally pronounce according to the analogy of other words which are familiar, and the practice supplies a rule of treatment. Doubtful or unfamiliar words should be pronounced in harmony with the general tendencies of the language, or in a way similar to other words which strikingly resemble them. Scripture names are borrowed from the foreign languages Greek and Hebrew. They are, therefore, to be compared specially with words of similar origin, such as the names of classical antiquity.' He admits, however, that ' conflict of analogies cannot be wholly avoided. If one is not in itself stronger than another, the most ' ' desirable " result in each case should be preferred. Ease of pronunciation is one test of desirability. The principle of pronunciation according to sense has also been used by the writer.'
It is needless to say that he carries out these principles with great care and consistency. The weak point of the position is that the analogies founded on by one scholar wiU not be equally familiar, or commend themselves to the same extent, to another; and it may well appear to many that Professor Stevenson in his list of proper names concedes too much to popular usage, and would in some cases attain a more desirable result by approximating more closely to the form of the original.
3. Points for consideration. — ^We shall now present for the consideration of the reader who desires to achieve as great a degree of correctness as the matter admits of, some of the more important points which he will have to decide for himself, assuming that when he has once adopted a rule he will foUow it as consistently as possible, or be able to give a reason for any deviation.
(1) Shall we adopt what may be called the Continental pronunciation of the vowels— a.= ah, e=eh, i=ee, u=oo? — In many instances we may be strongly tempted to do so; to one who knows Hebrew it is more natural, and the effect is finer — Mesopotamia is a grander word than Mesopotamia. But it is only in the less familiar words that this could be done. The first syllables of Canaan, Pharaoh, Balaam, must have the a as in fate or fair.
(2) Is the Hebrew J to be pronounced like j in judge, or like y? — It would probably be impossible to foUow the latter mode in the large number of names beginning with J, such as Jericho, Joash, &c., and it would be intolerable in the case of Jesus; but there are instances in which it would impart an added dignity — e.g. Jehovah-jireh is far finer if the j be sounded as y, and the i as ee. In the middle of words, especially in words containing the Divine name Jah, the matter has already been settled for us, as it in most cases appears as iah, Ahaziah, Isaiah, Shemaiah. The question here arises whether the i is to be treated as consonant or vowel, and if the latter, whether it should ever be accented. Professor Cheyne, in order to bring out more prominently the Divine name, would treat the iah=]'ah always as a separate word — Ahaz'iah, Isa'iah, Shema'iah. Except for this considera^- tion the rule would probably be, that where it follows a consonant the i is not only treated as a vowel but also accented — Jeremi'ah; when it follows a vowel it is assimilated with that vowel as in the two examples given above, which also illustrate the way in which one or other vowel may give place, Isaiah (Isar-ah), Shemaiah (Shemi-ah), though some woiild render the former also Isi'ah.
(3) The question often arises in the case of names of three or more syllables, especially when the last two are significant in the original, whether the accent should be placed on the penultimate or thrown farther back in accordance with general English practice. Professor Stevenson says: — 'The English stress accent in ancient foreign names is determined, with limitations, by the original length of the vowels, not by the original stress.' But in the case of words in familiar and frequently read passages of Scripture, the ' hmitations ' are extensive, and must be allowed to override considerations based on length of vowel. Where Cheyne prefers Abime'lech, Ahitho'phel, Jocheb'ed, Joha'nan, Stevenson gives Abim'elech, Ahith'ophel, Joch'ebed, Jo'hanan. On the other hand, Cheyne gives Am'raphel and A'holiab', where Stevenson accentuates Amra'phel and Aholi'ab. Nor is it an English trait to have too much regard for significant parts of words. We do not say philosoph'y, biolog'y, Deuteronom'y (though this is heard occasionally), but the stress is laid on the connecting syllable. So, if Abim'elech and the class of names ruled by it be allowed, a great deal might be said for Abin'adab, Abi'athar, and similar words being pronounced thus, instead of Abina'dab, Abia'thar, etc., notwithstanding the length of the penultimate in the original. Here, again, views will differ according to the ' educated usage ' to which we have access, and the deference we may be inclined to pay to the peculiarities of English speech. With reference to Jochebed and Johanan in the examples quoted above, it should be noted that Stevenson makes an exception to the rule of the penultimate
PRONUNCIATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES
accent in favour of names in which the first element is some form of the Divine name. The accent, he says, rests in such cases on this first element. It may be doubtful if this reason is the one con- sciously adopted in regard to these names. Jo'hanan seems to us uimatural, and for Jehon'adab we prefer the explanation given in the former part of this paragraph.
(4) Professor Stevenson is doubtless right in saying that the established pronunciation of familiar names determines that of others in the same form that are less familiar. Dan'iel and Is'rael are the key to one class of such names, unless, as he points out, Penu'el be accented on the second syllable, and determine other words in — ^uel. Phil'ippi (accent on the first) is due to the analogy of Philip, and Ene'as 'to the analogy of Virgil's hero.'
These may serve as examples of the kind of difficulty which surrounds the subject, and the extent to which individual judgment may be exercised. There are general principles which may be adopted and usually observed, though perfect consistency in their application may not be attainable or desirable. Let the reader ascertain in all doubtful cases the form and pronunciation of the naine in the original,* and compare it with those suggested by the best authorities within his reach. He will then be able to follow the method which most commends itself to his ear and judgment. Though the student may not always adopt the pronunciation given in Professor Stevenson's list, nothing but good can result from a careful pondering of his explanations. Let us be sure that, though we are told that 'De minimis non curat lex,' it is worth our while to be as careful as we can even about 'little things.'
Alexander Stewart.
* These are given in all cases by Professor Stevenson in Roman letters, according to a system of transliterationwhich he explains in his mtroduction. They are thus made accessible to English readers.
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A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE
AARON. — In examining the Biblical account of Aaron, we must deal separately with the different 'sources' of the Hexateuch.
1. In J, Aaron plays a very subordinate part. He, Nadab and Abihu, along with 70 elders, accompanied Moses up Mt. Sinai (Ex 19« 24»). In the former passage he is distinguished from the priests, who are for- bidden to come up ; he would seem , therefore, to have been an elder or sheikh, perhaps somewhat superior to the 70. In 32» Aaron 'let the people loose for a derision among their enemies.' What this refers to is not known; it was not the making of the golden bull, which in the eyes of the surrounding nations would be only an act of piety.
In other passages, which cannot be assigned either to E or P, the mention of A^ron is probably due to a later hand. In 4'^-" Moses is allowed to nave Aaron as a spokes- man. But 'the Levite' (v.") is suspicious: for Moses was also of the tribe of Levi, and the description is super- fluous. The verses probably belong to a time when ' Levite ' bad become a technical term for one tiained in priestly functions, and when such priestly officials traced their descent from Aaron. In the narratives of the plagues Aaron is a silent figure, merely sununoned with Moses four times when Fhaiuoh entreats for the removal of the plagues (gB. 25 927 1016). jn each case Moses alone answers, and in the last three he alone departs. In 10^ Moses and Aaron went in to announce the plague, but Moses alone ' turned and went out' (v.*). The occurrence of Aaron's name seems to be due, in each case, to later redaction.
2. In E, Aaron is the brother of Miriam (IS^"). He was sent to meet Moses in the wilderness, and together they performed signs before the people (4"-"). They demanded release from Pharaoh, and'on his refusal the people murmured (5'- '■ *■ ""■). Little of E has sur- vived in the narrative of the plagues, and Aaron is not mentioned. In 171"- '^ he and Hur held up Moses' hands, in order that the staff might be lifted up, dur- ing the fight with Amalek. And while Moses was on the mountain, the same two were left in temporary authority over the people (24"'). Aaron is related to have abused this authority, in making the golden bull (321-6. 21-24). [xhe narrative is composite, and in its present form must be later than E. It has some con- nexion with the story of 1 K l2»-'», for Jeroboam's words, which are suitable in reference to two bulls, are placed in Aaron's mouth. 1 In 18'^ Aaron, with the elders, was called to Jethro's sacrifice — an incident which must be placed at the end of the stay at Horeb. In Nu 12 Aaron and Miriam claimed that they, no less than Moses, received Divine revelations; only Miriam, however, was punished. In Jos 24> there is a general reference to the part played by Aaron in the Exodus.
It is noteworthy that there is not a word so far either in J or E, which suggests that Aaron was a priest.
But it is probable that by the time of E the belief hsul begun to grow up that Aaron was the founder of an hereditary priesthood. Dt lO' occurs in a parenthesis which seriously interrupts the narrative, and which was perhaps derived from E (cf. Jos 24").
3. In D, Aaron was probably not mentioned. Dt IC has been referred to; 32"' is from P; and the only remaining passage (9^°) appears to be a later insertion.
4. Outside the Hexateuch, two early passages (1 S 126 8_ Mic 6') refer to Aaron merely as taking a lead- ing part in the Exodus.
5. In P, the process by which the tradition grew up that Moses delegated his priesthood to Aaron is not known. But the effect of it was that the great majority of ' Levites,' i.e. trained official priests, at local sanctuaries throughout the country traced their descent to Aaron. The priests of Jerusalem, on the other hand, were de- scendants of Zadok (1 KV 2^'); and when local sanctuaries were abolished by Josiah's reforms, and the country priests came up to seek a liveUhood at Je- rusalem (see Dt 186-s), the Zadokite priests charged them with image-worship, and allowed them only an inferior position as servants (see 2 K 23', Ezk 44'-"). But at the Exile the priests who were in Jerusalem were carried off, leaving room in the city for many country (Aaronite) priests, who would establish themselves firmly in ofScial prestige with the meagre remnant of the population. Thus, when the Zadokite priests re- turned from Babylon, they would find it advisable to trace their descent from Aaron (see Ezr 2"'). But by their superiority in culture and social standing they regained their ascendancy, and the country priests were once more reduced, under the ancient title of 'Levites,' to an inferior position.
This explains the great importance assigned to Aaron in the priestly portions of the Hexateuch. Reference must be made to other articles for his consecration, his purely priestly functions, and his relation to the Levites (see articles Pribsis and LEViTEa, Sackifice, Tabernacle). But he also plays a considerable part in the narrative of the Exodus and the wanderings. His family relationships are stated in Ex e^"- 23. 25_ Lv 10*. He became Moses' spokesman, not to the people but to Pharaoh (7i) , in whose presence he changed the staff into a 'reptile' (contrast 'serpent' in 4* J). P relates the 2nd plague (combined with J), the 3rd and the 6th, in each of which Aaron is conspicuous. Aaron as well as Moses suffered from the murmurings of the people (Ex IB", Nu 14^ IS'- " 20'); both were consulted by the people (Nu 96 15**); and to both were addressed many of God's commands (Ex 9'-"i 121- •', Lv 111 131 ^433 151, Nu 2'). Aaron stayed a
AARON'S ROD
plague by offering incense (Nu 16"-*'). [On tlie com- bined narratives in chs. 16. 17 see Aaron's Rod, Kokah]. At Meribah-kadesh he, with Moses, sinned against J" (Nu 20'-"), but the nature of the sin is obscure (see Gray, Com. p. 262 f.)- He was consequently tor- bidden to enter Canaan, and died on Mt. Hor, aged 123, Eleazar his son being clothed in the priestly gar- ments (Nu 20»-2» 33'" , Dt 32*").
6. In the NT: Lk 1', Ac 7", He 5* 7" 9*.
A. H. M'Neile.
AASON'S ROD. — In a very complicated section of the Hexateuch (Nu 16-18), dealing with various revolts against the constituted authorities in the wilderness period, the exclusive right of the tribe of Levi to the duties and privileges of the priesthood is miraculously attested by the blossoming and fruit-bearing of Aaron's rod. As representing his tribe, it had been deposited by Divine command before the ark along with 12 other rods representing the 12 secular tribes, in order that the will of J" in this matter might be visibly made known (see Nu 16'-" with G. B. Gray's Com.). The rod was thereafter ordered to be laid up in perpetuity 'before the (ark of the) testimony for a token against the rebels' (17'"). Later Jewish tradition, however, transferred it, along with the pot of manna, to a place within the ark (He 9«). A. R. S. Kennedy.
AB.— See Time.
ABACUC . — The form of the name HabaKkuk in 2 Es 1".
ASADDON'. — A word pecuUar to the later Heb. (esp. 'Wisdom') and Judaistic literature; sometimes synonymous with Sheol, more particularly, however, signifying that lowest division of Sheol devoted to the punishment of sinners (see Sheol). Properly, its Gr. equivalent would be apSleia ('destruction'), as found in the LXX. In Rev 9'i Abaddon is personified, and is said to be the equivalent of Apollyon ('destroyer'). Abaddon differs from Gehenna in that it represents the negative element of supreme loss rather than that of positive suffering. Shailee Mathews.
ABADIAS (1 Es 8»«).— An exile who returned with Ezra; called Obadiah, Ezr 8'.
ABAGTHA (Est l").— One of the seven chamberlains or eunuchs sent by Ahasuerus (Xerxes) to fetch the queen, Vashti, to his banquet.
ABANAH. — The river of Damascus mentioned by Naaman, 2 K 5'^. It is identified with the Barada, a river rising on the eastern slope of the Anti-Lebanon, which runs first southward, then westward, through the Wady Barada and the plain of Damascus. About 18 miles from Damascus, after dividing fan-wise into a number of branches, it flows into the Meadow Lakes. R. A. S. Macalister.
ABARIM ('the parts beyond'). — A term used to describe the whole east-Jordan land as viewed from Western Palestine. From there the land beyond Jordan rises as a great mountain chain to a height of 3000 feet and more from the Jordan valley. Hence Abarim is joined with 'mount' (Nu 2712, Dt 32") and 'moun- tains' (Nu 33"); also with 'lyye, 'heaps of (Nu 21"). See also Jer 22™ and Ezk 39" (RV; AV 'passages'). E. W. G. Masteeman.
ABBA is the 'emphatic' form of the Aram, word for 'father.' It is found in the Gr. and Eng. text of Mk 14w, Ro 8", and Gal i' (in each case Abba, ho paOr, ' Abba, Father'). Aram, has no article, and the 'emphatic' afiBx a is usually the equivalent of the Heb. article. Both can represent the vocative case (for Hebrew see Davidson's Syntax, § 21 f.); and abba occurs in the Pesh. of Lk 22« 23=* for pater. The ' articular nomina- tive' is found in NT sixty times for the vocative; and so we have ho paOr for B pater (Moulton, Gram, of NT Greek, p. 70). Jesus often addressed God as 'Father' or 'my Father.' In both cases He would probably use 'Abba'; for 'abba may be used for 'abl (Targ. on
ABEL-MAIM
Gn 19"). In Mk 14", ho palSr is perhaps a gloss addei by the Evangelist, as in Mk 5" 7"- " he adds a explanation of the Aram.: but in Ro 8" and Gal^ the Gentile Christians had learned for importunit: to use the Aram, word Abba; as the Jews in praye borrowed Kyrie mou ('my Lord') from the Greek, an used it along with Heb. words for 'my master,' 'm father' (Schattgen, Har. Heb. 252). J. T. Marshall.
ABDA ('servant,' sc. of the Lord). — 1. Father ( Adoniram, master of Solomon's forced levy (1 K 4' 2. A Levlte (Neh 11"); called Obadiah in 1 Ch 9'".
ABDEEL.— Father of Shelemiah (Jer 36'»),one of thoi ordered by Jehoiakim to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch.
ABDI.— 1. Grandfather of Ethan, ICh 6". 2.Fath( of Kish, 2 Ch 2912. 3. A Jew who had married a foreig wife, Ezr 10»=Oabdius, 1 Es 9".
ABDIAS (2 Es 1*9).— Obadiah the prophet.
ABDIEL ('servant of God').— Son of Guni (1 Ch 5«
ABDOM ('servile').— 1. The last of the minor judge Jg 12'5-». 2. A family of Benjamites, 1 Ch «^. 3. Gibeonite family, 1 Ch 8»° 926. 4. A courtier of Josia 2 Ch 34"; in 2 K 22'2 called Achbor. 5. A Levitic city ot Asher (Jos 212", 1 ch 6"), perhaps (v. d. Veld 'Abdeh E. of Achzib on the hills.
ABEDNEGO. — Dn 1', etc.; probably a corruption Abed-ne6o, i.e. 'servant of Nebo.'
ABEL.— Gn 42-'". The Heb. form Hebhel denot 'vapour' or 'breath' (cf. Ec 1', EV 'vanity'), whi( is suggestive as the name of a son of Adam (' man But it is perhaps to be connected with the Assyr. apl 'son.' Abel was a son of Adam and Eve, and broth of Cain. But the narrative presupposes a long peril to have elapsed in human history since the primiti condition of the first pair. The difference betwei pastoral and agricultural lite has come to be recognize for Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller the ground (see Cain). The account, as we have is mutilated: in v.* Heb. has 'and Cain said unto Al his brother' (not as AV and RV). LXX supplies t: words 'Let us pass through into the plain,' but tl; may be a mere gloss, and it cannot be known how mui ot the story is lost.
Nothing is said in Gn. of Abel's moral character, of the reason why his offering excelled Cain's in the ey of J"; cereal offerings were as fully in accord with Hebrc law and custom as animal offerings. He 11* gives ' fait as the reason. In He 12*' the 'blood ot sprinklin 'speaketh something better than the blood of Abe in that the latter cried for vengeance (Gn 4'°).
In Mt 233s II Lk 11" Abel is named as the first of t true martyrs whose blood had been shed during t period covered by the OT, the last being Zacharii (wh. see) . In Jn 8" it is possible that Jesus was thinki: of the story of Abel when He spoke of the devil as murderer from the beginning,' i.e. the instigator murder as he is of lies. A. H. M'Neile.
ABEL. — A word meaning 'meadow,' and entering an element into several place-names. In 1 S 6'* reference in AV to 'Abel' is in the RV corrected ' great stone.' Elsewhere the name is found only wi qualifying epithets. R. A. S. Macalistee.
ABEL (OF) BETH-MAACAH.— Where Sheba to refuge from Joab (2 S 2011-18); it was captured 1 Ben-hadad (1 K IS^"), and by Tiglath-pileser (2 K 152 corresponding to the modern Abil, west ot Tell d-Kai and north of Lake Huleh. R. a, S. Macalistee
ABEL-OHERAMIM ('meadow ot the vineyards') The limit ot Jephthah's defeat ot the Midianites (Jg 11' Site unknown. r. a. S. Macalistee.
ABEL-MAim ('meadow ot waters'). — An alternati
name for Abel ot Beth-maacah, found in 2 Ch li
which corresponds to 1 K 15", quoted under that hea
R. A. S. Macalistee.
ABEL-MEHOLAH
ABEL - ItlEHOLAH (' meadow of the dance or circle'). — A place in the Jordan valley, the limit of Gideon's pursuit of the Midianites (Jg 7^); in the administrative district of Taanach and Megiddo under Solomon (1 K 4"); the native place of Adriel, husband of Merab, Saul's daughter (1 S 18"), and ot Elisha (1 K 19"). The suggested identifications are uncertain. See Moore's Judges, p. 212. R. A. S. Macalistbk.
ABEL-MIZRAIM ('meadow of the Egyptians').— The scene ot the mourning tor Jacob (Gn 60"). The only clue to its situation is its being ' beyond Jordan.'
ABEL-SHITTIM ('meadow of the acacias').— In the plains of Moab (Nu 33"); otherwise Shittim, the last (Jos 3') trans-Jordanic stage where the Israelites en- camped. Identified with Ghor es-Seisaban, east of the Jordan, opposite Jericho. It was the scene of the offence of Baal-peor (Nu 25'). Hence Joshua sent his spies (Jos 2'). R. A. S. Macalister.
ABI. — The name of a queen-mother of the 8th cent. (2 K 18'), called Abijah in the parallel passage 2 Ch 29>. 'The reading in Kings is the more probable.
ABIAH.— See Abijah.
ABI-ALBON.— See Abiel.
ABIASAPH ( = 'tather has gathered'). Ex 6!" = EBIASAPH ( = ' father has increased'), 1 Ch 6»- s? 9i8._ The name of a division of the Korahite Levites, men- tioned only in the genealogies ot P and the Chronicler. According to 1 Ch 9" 26' (in the latter passage read Ebiasaph for Asaph), a section ot the division acted as doorkeepers.
ABIATHAR. — Son of Ahimelech, who was head ot the family of priests in charge of the sanctuary at Nob (1 S 21'). All except Abiathar were massacred by Saul (1 S 222"). -When the rest obeyed the king's summons, he may have remained at home to officiate. On hearing of the slaughter he took refuge with David, carrying with him the oracular ephod (1 S 23"; see also 1 S 23' 30'). Abiathar and Zadok accompanied the outlaw in his prolonged wanderings. During Absalom's rebellion they and their sons rendered yeoman service to the old king (2 S 15"). At 2 S 8" (so also 1 Ch 18'5 [where, moreover, ' Atimelech ' should be Ahimelech] 24") the names of Abiathar and his father have been transposed. Abiathar's adhesion to Adonijah (1 K 1'- 19- 25) was of great importance, not only because ot his position as priest, but also owing to his long friendship with king David. Solomon, therefore, as soon as he could safely do it, deposed Abiathar from the priesthood, warned him that any future misconduct would entail capital punishment, and relegated him to the seclusion of Anathoth (1 K 2»). His sons (2 S 8") lost the priestly office along with their father (1 K 2''; cf. 1 S 2^'-^). At Mk 2» the erroneous mention of Abiathar is due to his having been so intimately associ- ated with the king in days subsequent to the one mentioned. J. Taylok.
ABIB (the 'green ear' month. Ex 13* etc.). — See Time.
ABIDA ('father hath knowledge'). — A son of Midian (Gn 25S 1 Ch 1*!).
ABIDAD' ('father is judge'). — Representative of the tribe of Benjamin at the census and on certain other occasions, Nu 1" 2=2 7»"- » 10^.
ABIEL. — 1. Father of Kish and Ner, and grand- father ot Saul (1 S 9' 1461). The latter passage should run, ' Kish, the fathei of Saul, and Ner the father of Abner, were sons of Abiel.' 2. One of David's heroes (1 Ch 11'2), from Beth-arabah in the wilderness of Judah (Jos 15«- " 18«). Abi-albon (2 S 23") is a trans- scriber's error, the eye having fallen on albon below: some codices of the LXX have Abiel: possibly the original was Abibaal. J. Tatlor.
ABIEZER ('father is help'). — 1. The name occurs also in the abbreviated form Jezer. He is called the
ABILENE
son of Hammolecheth, sister ot Machlr, the son of Manasseh (1 Ch 7"). His descendants formed one of the smallest clans belonging to the Gileadite branch of the tribe ot Manasseh, the best known member ot which was Gideon. According to Jg 6^ 8'^, the Abiezrites were settled at Ophrah; they were the first to obey the summons of Joshua to fight against the Midianites. —
2. An Anathothite, one of David's thirty-seven chief heroes, who had command of the army during the ninth month (2 S 232', i ch 2712). W. O. E. Oesterley.
ABIGAIL, or ABIGAL.— 1. Wife of Nabal (1 S 25"). She dissuaded David from avenging himself on the surly farmer, and soon after the latter's death married David (1 S 25^'-"), and accom'pariied him to Gath and Ziklag (1 S 27' 30'- 1'). At Hebron she bore him a son, whose name may have been Chileab (2 S 3'), or Daniel (1 Ch 3i), or Dodiel (the LXX at 2 S 3' has Daluya). 2. Step-sister of David, mother of Amasa (2 S 1726, 1 Ch 2'").
J. Taylor.
ABIHAIL ('father is might'). — 1. As the name of a man it occurs (o) in 1 Ch 5" as that of a Gadite who dwelt in the land of Bashan. (6) It was also the name of Esther's father, the uncle of Mordecai (Est 2i6 9'').
2. As the name ot a woman it occurs three times: (a) 1 Ch 22S, the wife ot Abishur, of the tribe of Judah; this is its only occurrence in pre-exilic writings. (6) Nu 3^, a daughter of the sons of Merari, of the tribe of Levi, the mother of Zuriel, a ' prince ' among the families of Merari. (c) 2 Ch llis, the mother of Rehoboam's wife, Mahalath, and daughter of Eliab, David 's eldest brother.
It is a woman's name in Minaean (South Arabian) inscriptions, where it occurs in the form Ili-hail.
W. O. E. Oesterley.
ABIHU ('he is father'). — Second son of Aaron (Ex 623, Nu 32 26«», 1 Ch 6^ 24'); accompanied Moses to the top of Sinai (Ex 241 • '); admitted to the priest's office (Ex 28'); slain along with his brother Nadab for offering strange fire (Lv lOi- 2, Nu 3< 26", 1 Ch 242).
ABIHUD (' father is majesty ').—ABenjamite (1 Ch 8').
ABUAH. — 1. Son and successor of Rehoboam (2 Ch 13'), also called Abijam (1 K 14"). The accounts of him in the Books of Kings and Chronicles are discrepant. The difference begins with the name of his mother, which 2 Ch. gives as Micaiah, daughter of Uriel of Gibeah, while 1 K. makes her to have been Maacah, daughter of Abishalom. As the latter is also the name of Asa's mother (1 K 15'°, 2 Ch 16"), there is probably some confusion in the text. Beyond this, the Book ot Kings tells us only that he reigned three years, that he walked in the sins of his father, and that he had war with Jeroboam, king of Israel. 2. Samuel's second son (1 S 82). The RV retains the spelling Abiah in 1 Ch 628.
3. A son of Jeroboam I. who died in childhood (1 K 14).
4. One ot the 'heads ot fathers' houses' of the sons of Eleazar, who gave his name to the 8th of the 24 courses ot priests (1 Ch 24»- '», 2 Ch 8"). To this course Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, belonged (Lk 1'). The name occurs also in the lists of priests who 'went up with Zerubbabel' (Neh 12*), and of those who ' sealed unto the covenant ' in the'timejot Nehemiah(lO').
5. A son of Becher, son of Benjamin, 1 Ch 7*. 6. Wife of Hezron, eldest son of Perez, son of Judah, 1 Ch 22", RV Abiah. 7. Wife of Ahaz, and mother of Hezekiah (2 Ch 29'), named Abi in 2 K 18'. H. P. Smith.
ABILENE. — Mentioned in Lk 3', and also in several references in Josephus, as a tetrarchy of Lysanias [wh. see]. It was situated in the Anti-Lebanon, and its capital was Abila, a town whose ruins are found to-day on the northern bank of the river Barada, near a village called Suk Wady Barada. It is one of the most picturesque spots on the railroad to Damascus. The ancient name is to-day preserved in a Latin in- scription on a deep rock-cutting high up above the rail- way. By a worthless Moslem tradition, Abel is said to have been buried here. E. W. G. Mastebman.
ABILITY
ABILITT. — In AV 'ability' is either material (Lv 278, Ezr 2"', Ac 11^') or personal (Dn 1', Mt 25'') capacity. The mod. meaning (' mental power ') is not found in AV.
ABIMAEL (perhaps = 'father is God'). — One of the Joktanids or S. Arabians (see art. Joktan), Gn lO^s (J),
1 Ch 122.
ABIMELEOH ('father is Idng' or perhaps 'Melech isfather'). — 1. KingofGerar. According to E (Gn 20) he took Sarah into his harem, but on learning that she was Abraham's wife, restored her uninjured and made ample amends. Subsequently he entered into a covenant with Abraham (21»ff). J (12»i'ff- 26'<') gives two variants of the same tradition. The Book of Jubilees, in the section parallel to 12"'*-, exonerates Abraham from blame, and omits the other two narratives! 2. The son of Gideon. His mother belonged to one of the leading Canaanite families in Shechem, although Jg 8" calls her a concubine, and Jotham (9") brands her as a maid- servant. On Gideon's decease, Abimelech, backed by his maternal relatives, gathered a band of mercenaries, murdered his seventy half-brothers 'on one stone,' and was accepted as king by the mixed Canaanite and Israelite population of Shechem and the neighbourhood. But Jotham sowed the seeds of dissension between the new ruler and his subjects, and the latter soon took offence because the king did not reside among them. At the end of three years they were ripe for revolt, and found a leader in Gaal, son of Ebed. Abimelech de- feated him, took the city, and sowed the site with salt, in token that it should not again be built upon. Thebez, the next town attacked by him, fell into his hands, but he was mortally wounded by a woman whilst assaulting the citadel (Jg 9'»-m, 2 S ll^i). His significance in the history of Israel consists in the fact that his short- lived monarchy was the precursor of the durable one founded soon after. 3. 1 Ch 18'": read Ahimdech. 4. Ps 34 (title): read jlcftisft (of. IS 2113). j. Taylor.
ABINADAB ('father is generous'). — 1. The second son of Jesse (1 S 168 lyia, i ch 2"). 2. A son of Saul slain in the battle of Mt. Gilboa (1 S 312=1 Ch 10^). 3. Owner of the house whither the ark was brought by the men of Kiriath-jearim (1 S 7'), whence it was sub- sequently removed by David (2 S 6"-, 1 Ch 13').
ABIKOAM ('father is pleasantness'). — The father of Barak (Jg 4«- " S'^).
ABIRAM ('father is the Exalted One').— 1. A Reubenite, who with Dathan conspired against Moses (Nu 161 etc., Dt 11», Ps lOB"). See art. Korah. 2. The firstborn son of Hiel the Bethelite, who died when his father rebuilt Jericho (1 K 16").
ABISHAG. — A beautiful young Shunammitess who attended upon David in his extreme old age (1 K 1^^ ■ i'). After David's death, Abishag was asked in marriage by Adonijah; the request cost him his life (1 K 218-25).
ABISHAI. — Son of Zeruiah, David's step-sister (2 S 1726, 1 Ch 2i«). His brothers were Joab and Asahel (2 S 21*). He was a hot-tempered, ruthless soldier. Accompanying David into Saul's camp, he would fain have killed the sleeper (1 S 26'). An editorial addition (2 S 38") associates him with Joab in the blood-revenge taken on Abner. Abishai was second in command of the army (2 S 10. 18), and if we make a slight necessary correction at 2 S 23i8'-, we find that he was first of the famous thirty. He is credited with the slaughter of three hundred foes, and David once owed his life to Abishai's interposition (2 S 231* 21i"). Notwithstanding their relationship and their usefulness, there was a natural antipathy between the king and the two brothers (2 S 3"). J. Taylor.
ABISHALOM.— See Absalom.
ABISHUA.— 1. Son of Phinehas and father of Bukki (1 Ch 6«- 8», Ezr 7'); called in 1 Es 82 Abisue, and in
2 Es 12 Abissei. 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch 8«; cf. Nu 2688«).
ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION
ABISHUR ('father is a wall').— A Jerahmeelii (1 Ch 228t.).
ABISSEI.— See Abishua, No. 1.
ABISUE.— See Abishua, No. 1.
ABITAL ('father is dew').— Wife of David an mother of Shephatiah (2 S 3i = 1 Ch 38).
ABITTJB.— A Benjamite (1 Ch 8").
ABIUD (i.e. Abihud).— An ancestor of Jesus (Mt 1"
ABJECT. — In Ps 351* 'abject' occurs as a noun, as i Herbert's Temple — 'Servants and abjects flout me.'
ABNER.— Saul's cousin (1 S Qi 14") and commander-ii chief (1 S 17« 268). He set Ish-bosheth on his father throne, and fought long and bravely against David general, Joab (2 S 2). After a severe defeat, he kille Asahel in self-defence (2 S 22'). He behaved arrogant! towards the puppet-king, especially in taking possessic of one of Saul's concubines (2 S 3'). Resenting bitter: the remonstrances of Ish-bosheth, he entered ini negotiations with David (2 S 38-12), and then, on David behalf, with the elders of Israel (2 S 31'). Dreading tl loss of his own position, and thirsting for revenge, Joa murdered him at Hebron (2 S 328'). David gave hi) a public funeral, dissociated himself from Joab's ai (2 S 381-8'), and afterwards charged Solomon to avenj it (1 K 28). Abner was destitute of all lofty ideas ( morality or religion (2 S 38- is), but was the only capab person on the side of Saul's family. J. Taylor.
ABOMINATION.— Four Hebrew words from thrf different roots are rendered in EV by 'abominatioi and, occasionally, 'abominable thing.' In almost a cases (for exceptions see Gn 4382 468*) the reference to objects and practices abhorrent to J", and oppose to the moral requirements and ritual of His religioi Among the objects so described are heathen deiti( such as Ashtoreth (Astarte), Chemosh, Milcora, tl ' abominations ' of the Zidonlans (Phoenicians) , Moabite and Ammonites respectively (2 K 23i8); images an other paraphernalia of the forbidden cults (Dt 728 27' and often in Ezk. ) ; and the flesh of animals ritually tabc (see esp. Lv lli»«- and art. Clean and Unclean Some of the practices that are an ' abomination unto J" are the worship of heathen deities and of the heavenl bodies (Dt 13" 17* and often), the practice of witchcra and kindred arts (Dt 18!2), gross acts of immoralit (Lv 18229 • ) , falsification of weights and measures (Pr Hi and 'evil devices' generally (Pr 1528 RV).
One of the four words above referred to {piggU occurs only as a 'technical term for stale sacrifioii flesh, which has not been eaten within the prescribe time' (Driver, who would render 'refuse meat' i Lv 71B 19', Ezk 4», Is 65«). A. R. S. Kennedy.
ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION.— A term four only in Mk 13" and its parallel Mt 24". It is obvious! derived, as St. Matthew indicates, from Dn II81 12' cf. 92'. In these passages the most natural referem is to the desecration of the Temple under Antiochi Epiphanes, when an altar to Olympian Zeus was erecte on the altar of burnt sacrifices. As interpreted in tl revision by St. Luke (2120), the reference in the Gosp is to the encompassing of Jerusalem by the Roma army. It is very diflScult, however, to adjust th interpretation to the expression of Mk. ' standing whei he ought not,' and that of Mt. 'standing in the hoi place.' Other interpretations would be: (1) tl threatened erection of the statue of Caligula in tl Temple; or (2) the desecration of the Temple area t the Zealots, who during the siege made it a fortres or (3) the desecration of the Temple by the presen( of Titus after its capture by that general. While is impossible to reach any final choice between the different interpretations, it seems probable that tl reference of Mk 13" is prior to the destruction 1 Jerusalem, because of its insistence that the appearan( of the ' abomination of desolation' (or the ' abomlnatic
ABRAHAM
ABRAHAM
that makes desolate') is to be taken as a warning for tliose who are in Judsea to flee to the mountains. It would seem to follow, therefore, that the reference is to some event, portending the fall of Jerusalem, which might also be Interpreted by the Christians as a premoni- tion of the Parousia (2 Th 2i -12). It would seem natural to see this event in the coming of the Romans (Lk 212°), or in the seizure of the Temple by the Zealots under John of Gisoala, before the city was completely invested by the Romans. A measure of probability is given to the latter conjecture by the tradition (Eusebius, HE iii. v. 3) that the Jewish Christians, because of a Divine oracle, fled from Jerusalem during the early course of the siege. Shailer Mathews.
ABRAHAM. — Abram and Abraham are the two forms in which the name of the flrst patriarch was handed down in Hebrew tradition. The change of name recorded in Gn 17'' (P) is a harmonistic theory, which involves an impossible etymology, and cannot be regarded as historical. Of Abraham no better ex- planation has been suggested than that it is possibly a dialectic or orthographic variation of Abram, which in the fuller forms Abiram and Aburamu is found as a personal name both in Heb. and Babylonian. The history of Abraham (Gn ll''-2S'*) consists of a number of legendary narratives, which have been somewhat loosely strung together into a semblance of biographical continuity. These narratives (with the exception of ch. 14, which is assigned to a special source) are appor- tioned by critics to the three main documents of Genesis, J, E, and P; and the analysis shows that the biographic arrangement is not due solely to the compUer of the Pent., but existed in the separate sources. In them we can recognize, amidst much diversity, the outlines of a fairly solid and consistent tradition, which may be assumed to have taken shape at different centres, such as the sanctuaries of Hebron and Beersheba.
1. The account of J opens with the Divine call to Abraham, in obedience to which he separates himself from his kindred and migrates to Canaan (12'-*).
In the proper Jahwistic tradition the starting-point of the Exodus was Harran in Mesopotamia, but in ll^aff. (cf. 15') we find combined with this another view, according to which Abraham came from Ur of the Chaldees in S. Babylonia. In passing we may note the remarkable fact that both traditions alike connect the patriarch with famous centres of Babylonian moon-worship.
Arrived in Canaan, Abraham builds altars at Shechem, where he receives the flrst promise of the land, and Bethel, where the separation from Lot takes place; after which Abraham resumes his southern journey and takes up his abode at Hebron (ch. 13). This con- nexion is broken in 1211-2" by the episode of Abraham's sojourn in Egypt, which probably belongs to an older stratum of Jahwistic tradition representing him as leading a nomadic life in the Negeb. To the same cycle we may assign the story of Hagar's flight and the prophecy regarding Ishmael, in ch. 16: here, too, the home of Abraham is apparently located in the Negeb. In ch. 18 we find Abraham at Hebron, where In a theophany he receives the promise of a son to be born to Sarah, and also an intimation of the doom impending over the guilty cities of the Plain. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the deliver- ance of Lot, are graphically described in ch. 19, which closes with an account of the shameful origins of Moab and Ammon. Passing over some fragmentary notices in ch. 21, which have been amalgamated with the fuller narrative of E, we come to the last scene of J's record, the mission of Abraham's servant to seek a bride for Isaac, told with such dramatic power in ch. 24. It would seem that the death of Abraham, of which J's account has nowhere been preserved, must have taken place before the servant returned. A note is appended in 25'*- as to the descent of 16 Arabian tribes from Abraham and Keturah.
2. Of E's narrative the first traces appear in ch. 1.5,
a composite and difiicult chapter, whose kernel probably belongs rather to this document than to J. In its present form it narrates the renewal to Abraham of the two great promises on which his faith rested — the promise of a seed and of the land of Canaan — and the confirmation of the latter by an impressive ceremony in which God entered into a covenant with the patriarch. The main body of Elohistic tradition, however, is found in chs. 20-22. We have here a notice of Abraham's arrival in the Negeb, followed by a sojourn in Gerar, where Sarah's honour is compromised by the deliberate concealment of the fact that she is married (ch. 20) — a variant form of the Jahwistic legend of 121° -'i. 'The expulsion of Hagar, recorded in 21'>-2i, is an equally obvious parallel to J's account of the flight of Hagar in ch. 16, although in E the incident follows, while in J it precedes, the births of both Ishmael and Isaac. The latter part of ch. 21 is occupied with the narrative of Abraham's adventures in -the Negeb — especially his covenant with Abimelech of Gerar — which leads up to the consecration of the sanctuary of Beersheba to the worship of Jahweh. Here the narrative has been supplemented by extracts from a Jahwistic recension of the same tradition. To E, finally, we are indebted for the fascinating story of the sacrifice of Isaac in ch. 22, which may be fairly described as the gem of this collection.
3. In P, the biography of Abraham is mostly reduced to a chronological epitome, based on the narrative of J, and supplying some gaps left by the compiler in the older document. There are just two places where the meagre chronicle expands into elaborately circumstantial description. The first is the account, in ch. 17, of the institution of circumcision as the sign of the covenant between God and Abraham, round which are gathered all the promises which in the earlier documents are connected with various experiences in the patriarch's lite. The second incident is the purchase of the cave of Machpelah after the death of Sarah, recorded at great length in ch. 23: this is peculiar to P, and was evidently of importance to that writer as a guarantee of Israel's perpetual tenure of the land of Canaan.
4. Such is, in outline, the history of Abraham as transmitted through the recognized literary channels of the national tradition. We have yet to mention an episode, concerning which there is great diversity of opinion, — the story of Abraham's victory over the four kings, and his interview with Melchizedek, in ch. 14. It is maintained by some that this chapter bears internal marks of authenticity not possessed by the rest of the Abrahamic tradition, and affords a firm foothold for the belief that Abraham is a historic personage of the 3rd millennium B.C., contemporary with Hammurabi (Amraphel?) of Babylon (c. 2300). Others take a diametrically opposite view, holding that it is a late Jewish romance, founded on imperfectly understood data derived from cuneiform sources. The arguments on either side cannot be given here: it must suffice to remark that, even if convincing proof of the historicity of ch. 14 could be produced, it would still be a question whether that judgment could be extended to the very different material of the undisputed Hebrew tradition. It is much more important to inquire what is the historical value of the tradition which lies immediately behind the more popular narratives in which the religious significance of Abraham's character is expressed. That these are history in the strict sense of the word is a proposition to which no competent scholar would assent. They are legends which had circulated orally for an indefinite time, and had assumed varied forms, before they were collected and reduced to writing. The only question of practical moment is whether the legends have clustered round the name of a historic personality, the leader of an immigration of Arameean tribes into Palestine, and at the same time the recipient of a new revelation of God which prepared the way
5
ABRAHAM'S BOSOM
for the unique religious history and mission of Israel. It cannot be said that this view of Abraham has as yet obtained any direct confirmation from discoveries in Assyrioiogy or archaeology, though it is perhaps true that recent developments of these sciences render the conception more intelligible than it formerly was. And there is nothing, either in the tradition itself or in our knowledge of the background against which it is set, that is inconsistent with the supposition that to the extent just indicated the figure of Abraham is historical. If it be the essence of legend, as distinct from myth, that it originates in the impression made by a commanding personality on his contemporaries, we may well believe that the story of Abraham, bearing as it does the stamp of ethical character and individuality, is a true legend, and therefore has grown up around some nucleus of historic fact.
5. From the religious point of view, the Ufe of Abraham has a surprising inner unity as a record of the progressive trial and strengthening of faith. It is a life of unclouded earthly prosperity, broken by no reverse of fortune; yet it is rooted in fellowship with the unseen. 'He goes through life,' it has been well said, ' listening for the true ISra, which is not shut up in formal precepts, but revealed from time to time to the conscience; and this leaning upon God's word is declared to be in Jahweh's sight a proof of genuine righteousness.' He is the Father of the faithful, and the Friend of God. And that inward attitude of spirit is reflected in a character of singular loftiness and magnanimity, an unworldly and disinterested disposition which reveals no moral struggle, but is nevertheless the fruit of habitual con- verse with God. The few narratives which present the patriarch in a less admirable light only throw into bolder relief those ideal features of character in virtue of which Abraham stands in the pages of Scripture as one of the noblest types of Hebrew piety.
J. Skinner.
ABRAHAM'S BOSOM.— It was natural for the Jews to represent Abraham as welcoming his righteous descendants to the bliss of heaven. It was, also, not unusual for them to represent the state of the righteous as a feast. In the parable of Lk 16'™- Jesus uses these figures to represent the blessedness of the dead Lazarus. He was reclining at the feast next to Abraham (cf. Mt 8"). A Rabbi of the third century, Adda Bar Ahaba, uses precisely this expression as a synonym for entering Paradise. Other Jewish writings occasionally represent Abraham as in a way overseeing the entrance of souls into Paradise. ' Abraham's Bosom,' therefore, may very fairly be said to be a synonym for Paradise, where the righteous dead live in eternal bliss. There is no clear evidence that the Jews of Jesus' day believed in an intermediate state, and it is unsafe to see in the term any reference to such a belief. Shailer Mathews.
ABRECH. — A word of doubtful signification, tr. 'Bow the knee,' in AV and RV (Gn 41" 'then he made him [Joseph] to ride in the second chariot which he had; and they cried before him, Bow the knee; and he set him over all the land of Egypt'). The word should be either Hebrew or Egyptian. An Assyr. etymology has been proposed, viz. abarakku, the title of one of the highest officials in the Assyrian Empire, but no such borrowings from Assyria are known in Egypt. Hebrew affords no likely explanation. Egyp- tian hitherto has furnished two that are possible:
(1) 'Praisel' but the word is rare and doubtful;
(2) abrak, apparently meaning 'Attention!' 'Have a carer (Spiegelberg). The last seems the least im- probable. F. Ll. Griffith.
ABRONAH .—A station in the journeyings (Nu333* ■=') .
ABSALOM ('father is peace'). — Third son of David, by Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (2 S 3'). His sister Tamar having been wronged by her half- brother Amnon, and David having failed to punish the
6
ACCEPTANCE
criminal, Absalom assassinated Amnon and fled to Geshur, where he spent three years (ch. 13). Joab procured his recall, but he was not admitted into his father's presence. In his usual imperious fashion he next compelled Joab to briBg about his full restoration ( X429a . ) . Then he assumed the position of heir-apparent (151; cf. 1 S 8", 1 K 15), and began undermining the loyalty of the people. Four (not 'forty') years after his return he set up the standard of rebellion at Hebron, a town which was well-aflected towards him because it was his birthplace, and aggrieved against David because it was no longer the metropoUs. The old king was taken by surprise, and fled to the east of the Jordan. On entering Jerusalem, Absalom publicly appropriated the royal harem, thus proclaiming the supersession of his father. By the insidious counsel of Hushai time was wasted in collecting a large army. But time was on David's side. His veterans rallied round him; his seasoned captains were by his side. When Absalom offered battle, near Mahanaim, the king's only anxiety^ was lest his son should be slain. This really happened, through Joab's agency. The father's natural, but unseasonable, lamentation was cut short by the soldier's blunt remonstrance (2 S 19»*). On the face of the history it is clear that, if Absalom lacked capacity, he possessed charm. His physical beauty contributed to this: 2 S 1425-2' is probably a gloss, but certainly rests on a reliable tradition; the polling of the hair was a religious act. According to 2 S 18", Absalom had no son: this is more reliable than the statement in 2 S 14^'. It is said that later generations, following Pr 10', always avoided the name Absalom, preferring tiie form Abi- shalom (which appears in 1 K IS*- 1"). J. Taylor.
ABSALOM (IN Apocr.).— 1. The father of Mattathias, one of the captains who stood by Jonathan at Hazor (1 Mac ll"' = Jos. Ant. xiii. v. 7). It is perhaps the same Absalom whose son Jonathan was sent by Simon to secure Joppa (1 Mac.l3" = Jos. Ant. xm. vi. i). 2. An envoy sent by the jews to Lysias (2 Mac 11").
ABUBTJS. — Father of Ptolemy the murderer of Simon the Maccabee (1 Mac 16" ■ '5).
ABYSS.— The Jewish eschatology of the time of Christ conceived of the abode of departed spirits as a great abyss, in the midst of which was a lake of fire, intended primarily as a place of punishment for the angels and giants, and accordingly tor sinners. The abyss existed before the creation, and was the home of the various enemies of God, such as the dragon and the beast. In the NT it is used only in Apocalypse (AV 'bottomless pit') and in Ro 10' and Lk S^i (AV 'deep ').
Shailer Mathews.
ACACIA. — See Shittim Tree.
ACCABA, 1 Es Ss»=Hagab, Ezr 2«.
ACCEPTANCE denotes the being in favour with any one. In EV the noun is found only in Is 60', but 'accept' and 'acceptable' are used frequently both in OT and NT to express the acceptance of one man with another (Gn 322", Lk i^), but above all the acceptance of man with God. In OT the conditions of acceptance with God are sometimes ceremonial (Ex 28'*, Ps 20'). But of themselves these are insufficient (Gn 4' ■ ', Am S^^i Jer &'" 1411- 12), and only moral uprightness (Pr 21^, Job 428) and the sacrifices of a sincere heart (Ps 19" H9i»8; cf. 405ff. 51i5«) are recognized as truly accept- able with God. In NT the grounds of the Divine acceptance are never ceremonial, but always spiritual (Ro 121, ph 418, 1 P 25). Jesus Christ is the type of perfect acceptance (Mk lii||. He los"). In Him as ' the Beloved,' and through Him as the Mediator, men secure their reUgious standing and fundamental accept- ance with God (Eph 1«). In serving Him (Ro 14i8), and following His example (1 P Z">- «), they become morally acceptable in the Father's sight.
J. C. Lambert.
ACCESS
ACCESS (Gr. prosagSgl). — The word occurs only in Ro S', Eph 218 312, and the question (regarding which commentators are much divided) is whether it ought to be understood in the trans, sense as 'introduction,' the being brought near by another, or in the intrans. sense as 'access' or personal approach. The trans, sense is most in keeping with the ordinary use of the vb. prosagS in classical Gr. (cf. its use in 1 P 31^ 'that he might bring us to God') — the idea suggested being that of a formal introduction into a royal presence. ' Access,' moreover, does not so well express the tact that we cannot approach God in our own right, but need Christ to introduce us; cf. 'by [RV 'through'] whom' (Ro 5'), 'through him' (Eph 2i»), 'in whom' (3"). The word 'access' does not occur in Hebrews, but the writer has much to say on the subject of our approach to God through Christ, esp. for the purpose of prayer (4i'^) and worship (IQi'"')- J- C. Lambert.
ACCO.— Jg 1». See Ptolemais.
ACCOS (1 Mac S").— Grandfather of one of the envoys sent to Rome by Judas Maccabseus in B.C. 161. Accos represents the Heb. Hakkoz, the name of a priestly family (1 Ch 24i», Ezr 2").
ACCURSED.— See Ban.
ACELDAMA.— See Akeldama.
ACHAIA. — This name was originally applied to a strip of land on the N. coast of the Peloponnese. On annexing Greece and Macedonia as a province in b.c. 146, the Romans applied the name Achaia to the whole of that country. In b.c. 27 two provinces were formed, Macedonia and Achaia; and the latter included Thessaly, .ffitolia, Acarnania, and some part of Epirus, with Euboea and most of the Cyclades. It was governed In St. Paul's time by a proconsul of the second grade, with headquarters at Corinth (Ac ISi^). 'Hellas' (Ac 20') is the native Greek name corresponding to the Roman 'Achaia.' There were Jewish settlements in this province, at Corinth, Athens, etc. (Ac 17" IS'- '), and the work of St. Paul began amongst them and was carried on by Apollos (1 and 2 Cor. passim, Ac 17"«-
18. 191). A. SODTEE.
ACHAICUS.— The name of a member of the Church at Corinth. He was with Stephanas and Fortunatua (1 Co 16'") when they visited St. Paul at Ephesus and 'refreshed his spirit.' Nothing more is certainly known of him. As slaves were often named from the country of their birth, it is a probable conjecture that he was a slave, born in Achaia. J. G. Taskek.
ACHAN. — Son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah (Jos 7'). It is brought home to Joshua (Jos T-") that the defeat at Ai was due to the fact of Jahweh's covenant hav- ing been transgressed. An inquiry is instituted, and Achan is singled out as the transgressor. He confesses that after the capture of Jericho he had hidden part of the spoil, the whole of which had been placed under the ban (cherem), i.e. devoted to Jahweh, and was therefore unlawful for man to touch. According to the usage of the times, both he and his family are stoned, and their dead bodies burned — the latter an even more terrible punishment in the eyes of ancient Israel. The sentence is carried out in the valley of Achor ('troubling'). According to Jos T^- *», this valley was so called after Achan, the 'troubler' of Israel. Later his name was changed to Achar to correspond more closely with the name of the valley (1 Ch 2'). W. O. E. Oesteelby.
ACHAR.— See Achan.
ACHBOR ('mouse' or 'jerboa'). — 1. An Edomite (Gn 36«»). 2. A courtier under Josiah, son of Micaiah (2 K 2212- "), and father of Elnathan (Jer 26^ om. LXX, 3612). Called Abdon (2 Ch 34").
ACHIACHARTJS, the nephew of Tobit, was governor under Sarchedonus = Esarhaddon (To l^i etc.). The nearest Hebrew name is Ahihud (1 Ch 8').
ACROSTIC
AOHIAS.— An ancestor of Ezra (2 Es l"), omitted in Ezr. and 1 Es.
ACHIM (perhaps a shortened form of Jehoiachim), an ancestor of our Lord (Mt 1").
ACHIOB ('brother of light').— A general of the Am- monites (Jtli 5' etc.), afterwards converted to Judaism (ch. 14).
ACHIFHA (1 Es 6").— His children were among the 'temple servants' or Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel; called Hakupha, Ezr 2«i, Neh 7^'.
ACmSH.— The king of Gath to whom David fled for refuge after the massacre of the priests at Nob (1 S 211"). In 1 S 272 he is called 'the son of Maoch' (possibly = 'son of Maacah,' 1 K 2''). He received David with his band of 600 men, and assigned him the city of Ziklag in the S. of Judah. Despite the wishes of Achish, the other Phil, princes refused to let David take part in the final campaign against Saul. ['Achish' should be read for ' Abimelech' in Ps 34 (title).]
ACHMETHA.— The Ecbatana of the Greeks and Romans, modern Hamadan. It was the capital of Media (in Old Persian Haghmatana). It is mentioned but once in the canonical books (Ezr 6^), as the place where the archives of the reign of Cyrus were deposited. It is several times mentioned in the Apocrypha (2 Mac 9'. To 3' 6' 14i3f-, Jth 11"). J. F. McCuEDY.
ACHOR Cemeq'akhBr, 'Vale of Grief ').— Here Achan (wh. see), with his famUy, was stoned to death. It lay on the boundary between Judah and Benjamin (Jos 15' etc.). Guthe identifies it with the plain south of Jericho, between the mountains on the west, and Jordan and the Dead Sea on the east. Wady Kelt, a tremendous gorge which breaks down from th^'ijipuntain W. of Jericho, probably formed the boundary between Judah and Benjamin. In the mouth of this valley, it seems likely, the execution took place. W. Ewing.
ACHSAH (1 Ch 2", AV Achsa).— The daughter of Caleb. Her father promised her in marriage to the man who should capture Debir or Kiriath-sepher — a feat accomplished by Othniel, the brother of Caleb. Her dowry of a south land (Negeb) was increased by the grant of 'the upper springs and the nether springs' (Jos 151= -1', Jg l?-i5).
ACHSHAPH.— About 17 miles E. of Tyre, now called Iksaf or Kesaf, on N.E. border of territory assigned to Asher (Jos 19^). Its king joined Jabin's confederacy, which was defeated by Joshua, and the ruler of Achshaph was amongst the slain (Jos lli 122°). J. Tayloe.
AOHZIB.— 1. A town in Asher (Jos 192'), from which the natives could not be dislodged (Jg I'l): it lay on the coast between Acre and Tyre. The early geographers called it Ekdippa; now ez-Zib. 2. In the S. of the Shephelah (Jos IS"), near Mareshah. Mic 1" predicts that Achzib shall be to the kings of Judah achzab ('deceptive'), a stream whose' waters fail when most needed (cf. Jer 15"). J. Tayloe.
ACRA. — See Jeeusalem, I. 3, II. 2.
ACRE. — See Weights and Measures.
ACROSTIC. — Acrostic poems, i.e. poems in which initial letters recurring at regular intervals follow some definite arrangement, occur to the number of 14 in the OT; another instance is Sir 511'-"°. All these are of a simple type, and are so planned that the initials re- curring at fixed intervals follow the order of the Hebrew alphabet; thus the first section of the poem begins with the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, aleph; the second with the second letter, beth; and so on down to the twenty-second and last letter, taw. The interval between the several letters consists of a regular number of lines. In Pss 111. 112 this interval is one line; in Pss 25. 34. 145, Pr 31'«-8i, Sir 51is-«», and in the fragment, which does not clearly extend beyond the thirteenth letter, contained in Nah 1, the interval Is 2 lines; in La 4 it is
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
2 longer lines, In chs. 1 and 2 it is 3 longer lines; in Pss 9 and 10 (a single continuous poem), and in Ps 37, it is 4 lines. In La 3, where the interval between each successive letter o( the alphabet is 3 long lines, each of each set of three lines begins with the same letter; and similarly in Ps 119, where the interval is 16 lines, each alternate line within each set of 16 begins with the same letter.
Certainly in La 2. 3 and 4, and, according to the order of the verses in theLXX, inPrSl .probablj^ also in Ps 34(where the sense seems to require the transposition of v. ^^ and v. '^) and in Ps 9, the sixteenth and seventeenth letters of the Hebrew alphabet occupy respectively the seventeenth and sixteenth places in the acrostic scheme. The reason for this is unknown.
Comparatively few of these poems have comedown to us intact. They have suffered from accidental errors of textual transmission, and probably also from editorial alterations. In some cases an entire strophe has dropped out of the text; thus the sixth strophe (of 2 lines) has fallen out between v.6 and v.7inPs34, and the fourteenth between v.'s and v." of Ps 145, though in the latter case it still stood in the Hebrew MS from which the Greek version was made. Occasionally lines have been inserted, as, apparently, in more than one place in Ps 37, and in Nah 1^. But such corruption of the text is really serious only in Ps 9 f., Nah 1, and Sir SI''-™.
The earliest of these fifteen poems are probably La 2 and 4, which may have been written in the earlier half of the 6th cent, b.c; but the custom of writing such poems may have been much more ancient. Perhaps the latest of the poems is Sir si''-'" (about b.c. 180), but the Jews continued to compose such poems long after this.
The English reader will find the strophes clearly dis- tinguished, and the initial Hebrew letters with their names in English letters indicated, in the RV of Ps 119. Unfortunately the RV does not give the initials in the other poems; but they will be found, in the case of the Psalms, in (for example) Kirkpatrick's Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Cheyne's Book of Psalms, Driver's Parallel Psalter. For La 2 and 4 see Expositor, 1906 (April) [G. A. Smith]; for Nah 1, Expositor, 1898 (Sept.), pp. 207-220 [G. B. Gray], or Driver, Century Bible, p. 26 f. Common though it is in other litera- tures and with such mediaeval Jewish poets as Ibn Ezra, no decisive instance of the type of acrostic in which the initial letters compose a name, has been found in the OT, though some have detected the name Simeon (or Simon) thus given in Ps 110. Pss 25 and 34 contain each an additional strophe at the close of the alphabetic strophes; in each case the first word of the verse is a part of the Hebrew verb pSid&h, ' to redeem,' and it has been suggested that the author or a copyist has thus left us a clue to his name — Pedahd; but interesting as this suggestion is, it is for several reasons doubtful.
G. B. Gray.
ACTS OP THE APOSTLES.— 1. Summary of con- tents.— The fifth book of our NT gives the history of the Church from the Ascension till c. a.d. 61. It may be divided into two parts, one of which describes the early history ('Acts of Peter' and 'Acts of the Hellenists'), and the other the life of St. Paul (' Acts of Paul') from his conversion to his imprisonment at Rome. The two parts overlap each other; yet a clear division occurs at 13S from which point forwards the Pauline journeys are described by one who for a con- siderable part of them was a fellow-traveller. The parallelism between Peter and Paul is very striking, corresponding deeds and events being related of each; and this peculiarity was thought by the Tubingen school to betray a fictitious author, who composed his narrative so as to show the equality of Peter and Paul. Though this conclusion is arbitrary, the paralleUsm shows us that the author, whoever he was, selected his facts with great care and with a set purpose.
2. Unity of authorship.^From 16i» onwards, the writer, who never names himself, frequently betrays
8
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
his presence as a fellow-traveller by using the pronoun 'we.' It is generally conceded that these 'we' sections are genuine notes of a companion of St. Paul. But some assert that the author of Acts was a later writer who incorporated in his work extracts from a diary contemporary with the events described. These critics see in the book traces of four strata, and assert .that it is a compilation of the same nature as the Pentateuch, the Book of Enoch, and the Apostolic Constitutions. Now no doubt our author used sources, in some parts of his book written sources. But if he were a 2nd cent, compiler, we ought to be able to detect interpolations from differences of style (as we do in Apost. Const.), and often from anachronisms. Moreover, seeing that he was at least a man of great literary ability, it is remarkable that he was so clumsy as to retain the pronoun 'we' if he was a late writer copying a 1st cent, source. His style is the same throughout, and no anachronisms have been really brought home to him; his interests are those of the 1st, not of the 2nd century (§ 8). Further, the Third Gospel is clearly, from identity of style and the express claim in Ac 1' (cf. Lk 13), by our author, and yet the Gospel is now gener- ally admitted to have been written by c. a.d. 80. Thus we may, with Harnack, dismiss the compilation theory. 3. The author. — Internal evidence, if the unity of authorship be admitted, shows that the writer was a close companion of St. Paul. Now, if we take the names of the Apostle's companions given in the Epistles, we shall find that all but four must be excluded, whether as having joined him after his arrival at Rome (for the author made the voyage with him, 27'), or as being mentioned in Acts in a manner inconsistent with author- ship (so, e.g., Timothy, Tychicus, Aristarchus, Mark, Prisca, Aquila, Trophimus must be excluded), or as having deserted him, or as being Roman Christians and recent friends. Two of the four (Crescens and Jesus Justus) are insignificant, and had no specially intimate connexion with the Apostle. We have only Titus and Luke left. Neither is mentioned in Acts; both were important persons. But for 2 Ti 4""- we must have conjectured that these were two names for the same person. We have then to choose between them, and Patristic evidence (§ 4) leads us to choose Luke. But why is Titus not mentioned in Acts? It cannot be (as Lightfoot suggests) that he was unimportant (cf. 2 Co. passim), but perhaps Luke's silence is due to Titus being his near relation (Ramsay); cf. Exp. T. Jfvm. [1907] 285, 335, 380.
Tjje author was a Gentile, not a Jew (Col 4i<"- "), a con- clusion to which a consideration of his interests would lead us (5 8; see also Ac 1" 'in their language'). He was a physician (Col 4»), and had quite probably studied at the University of Athens, where he seems quite at home though not present at the Athenian scenes he describes (Ac l?""-). His native country is disputed. A Preface to Inike, thought to be not later than the 3rd cent., says that he was 'by nation a Syrian of Antioch'; and Eusebius (.HE in. 4), using a vague phrase, says that he was, ' according to birth, of those from Antioch' ; while later writers like Jerome follow Eusebius. Certainly we should never have guessed this from the cold way in which the Syrian Antioch is mentioned inActs. Some(Rackham, Rendall)conjecturethatPisidian Antioch is really meant, as the scenes in the neighbourhood of that city are so vivid that the description might well be by an eye-witness. But the 'we' sections had not yet begun, and this seems decisive against the writer having been present. Others (Ramsay, Renan) believe the writer to have been a Macedonian of Philippi, since he took so great anmterest in the claims otthat colony(16i2). Indeed. Ramsay (S(.Po«Z, p. 202 ft.) propounds the ingenious oon- ',1o^n™i* ,j "''?',''*'"P8 met Paul at Troas accidentally (16'"; It could not have been by appointment, as Paul had not meant to go there) , was the ' certain man of Macedonia' who appearedin the vision (16») ; it must have been some one whom the Apostle knew by sight, for otherwise he could not have told that he was a Macedonian. This is a very tempting conjecture. Luke need not have been a new convert at that time. On the other hand, it must be said that against his having been a native of Philippi are the
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
facts that he had no home there, but went to lodge with Lydia (16^^), and that he only supposed that there was a Jewish place of prayer at Philippi (I612 RV). His interest in Philippi may rather be accounted for by his having been left in charge of the Church there (17' 20*; in the interval between St. Paul's leaving Philippi and his return there the pronoun 'they' is used). Yet he was quite probably a Macedonian [Ac 27^ is not against this], of a Greek family once settled at Antioch; he was a Gentile not without some contempt for the Jews, and certainly not a Roman citizen like St. Paul. His Greek nationality shows itself in his calling the Maltese ' barbarians ' (28^), i.e. non-Greek speaking, and in many other ways.
4. Patristic testimony. — There are probable refer- ences to Acts in Clement of Rome (c. a.d. 95), who seems to refer to 13^2 20^ etc.; and in Ignatius (c. a.d. 110), who apparently refers to 4"; also in Polycarp (c. Ill); almost certainly in the Martyrdom of Polycarp (c. a.d. 155); and full quotations are found at the end of the 2nd cent, in TertuIUan, Clement of Alexandria, and Irenaeus, all of whom ascribe the book to Luke. So also the Muratorian Fragment (c. a.d. 200). Moreover, the apocryphal Acts, some of them of the 2nd cent., are built on our canonical Acts, and their authors must have known the latter.
5. Style. — The book is not a chronological biography; there are few indications of time (11"*' 24^'; cf. Lk 3'), yet the writer often uses vague phrases like ' after some days,' which may indicate intervals of days, months, or years. He seizes critical features, and passes over unessential details. Thus he does not relate the events of the years spent by St. Paul in Tarsus (9^"), probably as being years of education in which no striking event occurred. So he tells us practically nothing of the missionary journey through Cyprus (13'), though much work must have been done among the Jews then; while great space is given to the epoch-making interview with Sergius Paulus. The writer leaves a good deal to be understood ; he states facts, and leaves the reader to deduce the causes or inferences; he reports directions or intentions, and leaves it to be inferred that they were carried into effect, e.g. 13» (no reason given for Elymas' opposition, it is not explicitly said that Paul preached to the proconsul), 13" (the reason for Mark's departure not stated, nor yet for Paul and Barnabas going to Pisidian Antioch), IQ^ (no reason given for the Philippi praetors' change of attitude), 17'* (not said that the injunction was obeyed, but from 1 Th 3' we see that Timothy had rejoined Paul at Athens and was sent away again to Macedonia, whence he came in Ac 18' to Corinth), 20" (not stated that they arrived In time for Pentecost, but it must be understood), 27" (it must be inferred that the injunction was obeyed).
6. Crises in the history. — These may be briefly indicated. They include the Day of Pentecost (the birthday of the Church); the appointment of the Seven (among them Nicholas, a 'proselyte of righteousness, i.e. a Gentile who had become a circumcised Jew); the conversion of St. Paul; the episode .of Cornelius (who was only a ' proselyte of the gate,' or ' God-fearing,' one who was brought into relation with the Jews by obejring certain elementary rules, such, probably, as those of 15^', but not circumcised [this is disputed; see Nicolas); this means, therefore, a further step towards Pauline Christianity); the first meeting of Paul and Barnabas with a Roman ofBcial in the person of Sergius Paulus in Cyprus, the initial step in the great plan of St. Paul to make Christianity the religion of the Roman Empire (see § 7 ; henceforward the author calls Saul of Tarsus by his Roman name, one which he must have borne all along, for the purposes of his Roman citizenship); the Council of Jerusalem, the vindication of Pauline teaching by the Church; the call to Macedonia, not as being a passing from one continent to another, for the Romans had not this geographical idea, nor yet as a passing over to a strange people, but partly as a step forwards in the great plan, the entering into a new Roman province, and especially
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
the association for the first time with the author (§ 3) ; the residence at Corinth, the great city on the Roman highway to the East, where Gallio's action paved the way for the appeal to Csesar; and the apprehension at Jerusalem. These are related at length. Another crisis is probably hinted at, the acquittal of St. Paul; tor even it the book were written before that took place (§ 9), the release must have become fairly obvious to aU towards the end of the two years' sojourn at Rome (cf. Ph 2M).
7. Missionary plan of St. Paul. — (a) The author describes the Apostle as beginning new missionary work by seeking out the Jews first; only when they would not listen he turned to the Gentiles, 13'- " 14^ 16'' (no synagogue at Philippi, only a ' place of prayer') 17"- (the words 'as his custom was' are decisive) 1710. i6f. 184. a. 19 igsf. 28"; we may perhaps understand the same at places where it is not expressly mentioned, 147. n. 25_ or the Jews may "have been weak and without a synagogue in those places. — (&) St. Paul utilizes the Roman Empire to spread the gospel along its lines of communication. He was justifiably proud of his Roman citizenship (16" 22Kff- etc.; cf. Ph V [RVm] 3», Eph 2"). He seems to have formed the great idea of Christianity being the reUgion of the Roman Empire, though not confined to it. Hence may be understood his zeal for Gentile liberty, and his breaking away from the idea of Jewish exclusiveness. In his missionary journeys he confines himself (if the South Galatian theory be accepted; see art. Galatians [Epistles to the]) to the great roads of traffic in the Empire. He utilizes the Greek language to spread Christian influence, just as the Roman Empire used it to spread its civiliza^ tion in the far East, where it never attempted to force Latin (for even the Roman colonies in the East spoke Greek, keeping Latin for state occasions). Paul and Barnabas, then, preached in Greek; they clearly did not know Lycaonian (cf. Ac 14" with 14'<). The Scriptures were not translated into the languages of Asia Minor, which were probably not written languages, nor even into Latin till a later age.
Following thesame idea, the author represents the Roman officials in the colonies as more favourable to St. Paul than the magistrates of the ordinary Greek cities. Contrast the account of the conduct of the Greek magistrates_ at Iconium and Thessalonica who were active against him, or of the Court of the Areopagus at Athens who were con- temptuous, with the silence about the action of the Roman magistrates of Pisidian Antioch and Lystra, or the explicit statements about Sergius Paulus, Gallio, Felix, Festus, (Claudius Lysiaa and Julius the centurion, who were more or less fair or friendly. Even the prsetors at Plylippi ended byapologizingprofusely when they discovered Paul s status.
8 . The writer's interests. — It is interesting to observe these, as they wUl lead us to an approximate date for the work. There is no better test than such an inquiry for the detectfon of a forgerjr or of a com- pilation. The principal interest is obviously St. Paul and his mission. To this the preliminary history of the Twelve and of the beginnings of Christianity leads up. The writer emphasizes especially St. Paul's dealings with Roman offlcials. Of minor interests we notice medicine, as we should expect from 'the beloved physician ' ; and the rival science of sorcery ; the position and influence of women (1'* 8s- 12 92 13=° 16" 17<- '2- « 216. 9 22' etc.; in Asia Minor women had a much more prominent position than in Greece proper) ; the organiza- tion of the Church (2«'«- 4"ff- 6'«- 8sk- IS^"- 19'a- etc.); Divine intervention to overrule human projects (note especially the remarkable way in which St. Paul was led to Troas, 16'-*); and navigation. This last interest cannot but strike the most cursory reader. The voyages and harbours are described minutely and vividly, while the land journeys are only just mentioned. Yet the writer was clearly no professional sailor. He de- scribes the drifting in 27" as a zigzag course when it must have been straight ; he is surprised at their passing Cyprus on a different side when going westward from
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
that on which they had passed it going eastward (27' 21S), though that was, and is, the normal course in autumn for sailing vessels (Ramsay, St. Paul, p. 317). It has been truly remarked by Ramsay (ib. p. 22) that the writer's interests and views are incompatible with the idea ol a 2nd cent, compiler; e.g. the view oi the Roman officials, and the optimistic tone, would be impossible after the persecution of Domitian — or even (we may add) after that of Nero.
9. Date. — -From the reasoning of §§ 2, 8 (see also § 12) we must reject the idea of a 2nd cent, compiler, and decide between a date at the end of the two years at Rome, 28*°'- (Blass, Salmon, Headlam, Rackham), and a later date 70-80 a.d. (Ramsay, Sanday, Harnack, and most of those who ascribe the book to Luke). — (a) For the former date we note that there is no reference to anything after the Roman imprisonment, to the martyrdom of James the Lord's brother in a.d. 62, or to the Neronian persecution in a.d. 64, or to the death of Peter and Paul (contrast the allusion to Peter's death in Jn 21"), or to the Fall of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. Also there is good reason to believe from the Pastoral Epistles, from Eccle.siastical history, and from a priori reasons, that St. Paul was released soon after the two years; but we should gather that our author did not know for certain the result of the appeal to Ceesar. He could hardly have known that the Apostle's expectation that he would not again see the Ephesian elders was falsified, or he would not have left 20'8 without remark [but see Paul, i. 4 (d)]. The optimistic tone (§ 8), contrasting so greatly with that of the Apocalypse, points in the same direction; as also does the absence of any reference to the Pauline Epistles, which we should expect if 15 or 20 years had elapsed since they were wjitten; and of any explanation of the apparent contradiction between Galatians and Acts (see art. Galatians [Epistle to the]). On the other hand, it is quite likely that a close companion of St. Paul would be the last to have, as long as he was with him, a copy of his correspondence. — (6) For the later date, A.D. 70-80, it is suggested that Luke contemplated a third volume, and so ended his second abruptly (cf. 1', properly 'first treatise,' not 'former'; but in late Greek comparatives and superlatives were frequently confused, cf. 1 Co 13'= RVm). It is also thought that Lk 2V must have been written after the taking of Jerusalem, and that a fortiori Acts must be later; and that the atmosphere of the Flavian period may be detected in it. For an alleged borrowing of Acts from Josephus, and for further remarks on the date, see artt. Luke [Gospel acc. to] and Theudas. To the present writer the earlier date given above seems the more probable.
10. Sources. — The author had exceptional oppor- tunities of getting information. For the last part of the book he was his own informant, or he had access to St. Paul. John Mark would tell him of the deliverance of St. Peter and of the mission to Cyprus (12i-13i'). For the 'Acts of the Hellenists' (chs. 6-8) and for the Cornelius episode he would have Philip the Evangelist as an authority, for he spent two years at Caesarea; and perhaps also Cornelius himself. He had perhaps visited the Syrian Antioch, and could get from the leaders of the Church there (e.g. Manaen) informa- tion about the events which happened there. The first five chapters remain. Here he had to depend entirely on others; he may have used written documents similar to those mentioned in Lk 1', though he may also have questioned those at Jerusalem who had witnessed the events. Dr. Blass thinks that Luke here used an Aramaic document by Mark; this is pure conjec- ture, and it is quite uncertain if Luke knew Aramaic.
11. The Bezan codex. — This great Uncial MS (D, now at CJambridge) , supported by some MSSof the OldLatin Version , presents a strikingly different text from that of the other great CJreek MSS, and has also many additions, especially
10
ADAH
in Acts. Dr. Blass' theory is that the variations in Acts come from Luke's having made two drafts of the book, though he would admit that some of the readings of D are interpolations. He thinks that the ' Bezan ' Acts represents the first draft, the 'Bezan' Luke the second draft, cut the Bezan text of Acta is too smooth, and its readings are too often obviously added to ease a rough phrase, for it to be original. It is more probable that it represents a revision made in Asia Minor in the 2nd cent, by one who was very familiar with the localities described. Many scholars, however, think that it preserves a large number of true and authentic readings which have been lost in the other great MSS; but this seems doubtful. — In 11™ this MS (supported by Augustine), by inserting 'we,' makes the writer to have been present at Syrian Antioch when Agabus prophesied.
12. Accuracy of Acts. — This is most important, as it would be almost impossible for a late writer to avoid pitfalls when covering so large a ground. Instances of remarkable accuracy are: (o) the proconsul in Cyprus (13'), which had only been under the rule of the Senate for a short time when St. Paul came there, and afterwards ceased to be so governed — otherwise the governor would have been a 'proprsetor.' An inscription in Cyprus is dated ' in the proconsulship of Paulus.' (6) So the proconsul in Achaia (18'^); this province had been off and on united to Macedonia. At one time separated and governed by a propraetor and then united, a few years before St. Paul's visit it had been again separated and governed by a proconsul, (c) The 'first men' at Pisidian Antioch (13'"), i.e. the Duumviri and the 'First Ten.' This last title was only given (as here) to a board of magistrates in Greek cities of the East ; in Roman colonies in Italy the name was given to those who stood first on the Senate roll. (,d) The ' first man ' in Malta (28') and (e) the ' polit- archs' ('rulers of the city') at Thessalonica (17'; prob- ably a local Macedonian title), are both attested by inscriptions, (f) The old Court of the Areopagus at Athens (17"), which really ruled the city, — though it was a 'free city,' — as the demos or popular assembly had lost its authority. ((/) The 'Asiarchs' at Ephesus (19'' RVm), the presidents of the 'Common Council' of the province in cities where there was a temple of Rome and the Emperor; they superintended the worship of the Emperor. Their friendliness to St. Paul is a sure sign of an early date, for the book could only have been written while the Imperial policy was still neutral to Christianity, or at least while the memory of that time was stUl green. Contrast the enmity between Christianity and this Rome worship depicted in Rev 2" 13" etc. No 2nd cent, author could have written thus. (h) The details of the last voyage, thoroughly tested by Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, who sailed over the whole course. — Against all this it is alleged that there are contradictions between Acts and Galatians (see art. on that Epistle); but these vanish on examination, especially if we accept the 'South Galatian' theory. Instances of minute accuracy such as those given above show that we have in Acts a history of great importance and one that is most trustworthy. The accuracy can only come from the book being a genuine contem- porary record. a. J. Maclean.
ACUE (1 Es 5").— His sons were among the 'temple servants' who returned with Zerubbabel. Called Bak- buk, Ezr 25', Neh 7".
ACUD (1 Es 6™).— His sons were among the 'temple servants' who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel. Called Akkub, Ezr 2«; omitted in Neh 7.
ADADAH (Jos IS^^).— A city of Judah in the Negeb; perhaps a corrupt reading for Ararah, i.e. Aroer oi 1 S 30^8.
ADAH.— 1. One of the two wives of Lamech, and mother of Jabal and Jubal (Gn 4'9- 20). The name pos- sibly means 'brightness' (cf. Arab, ghadat), Lamech's other wife being named 'Zillah' = 'shadow,' 'darkness ' 2. Daughter of Elon, a Hittite, and one of the wives
ADAIAH
ADAM IN THE NT
of Esau (Gn 36'). In Gn 26" (P) the daughter of Elon the Hittlte, whom Esau takes to wife, is named Basemath (wb. see).
ADAIAH ('Jehovah has adorned'). — 1. The maternal grandfather of Josiah, 2 K 22'. 2. A Levlte, 1 Ch 6", called Iddo in v.". 3. A son of Shimei (In v.'s Shema) the Benjaraite, 1 Ch 8". 4. The son of Jeroham, a priest, and head of a family in Jerusalem, 1 Ch 912. 5. The father of Maaseiah, a captain who helped to overthrow the usurpation of Athaliah, 2 Ch 23'. 6. One of the family of Bani, who took a strange wife during the Exile, Ezr 10". 7. Another of a different family of Bani, who had committed the same offence, Ezr 10". 8. A descendant of Judah by Pharez, Neh 11=. 9. A Levite of the family of Aaron, Neb 11'^'; probably the same as No. 4.
ADAUA (Est 98). — The fifth of the sons of Haman, put to death by the Jews.
ADAM. — The derivation is doubtful. The most plausible is that which connects it with the Assyr. adamu, 'make,' 'produce'; man is thus a 'creature' — one made or produced. Some derive it from a root signifying 'red' (cf. Edom, Gn 25*°), men being of a ruddy colour in the district where the word originated. The Biblical writer (Gn 2') explains it, according to hia frequent practice, by a play on the word 'adamSh, 'ground'; but that is itself derived from the same root ' red.' The word occurs in the Heb. 31 times in Gn l'-5=. In most of these it is not a proper name, and the RV has rightly substituted 'man' or 'the man' in some verses where AV has 'Adam.' But since the name signifies 'mankind,' homo, Mensch, not ' a man, ' vir, Mann (see 5'), the narrative appears to be a description, not of particular historical events in the life of an individual, but of the beginnings of human life (ch. 2), human sin (ch. 3), human genealogical descent (41. a 51 -B). In a few passages, if the text is sound, the writer slips into the use of Adam as a proper name, but only in 5'-' does it stand unmistakably for an individual.
1. The creation of man is related twice, IM-2' (P) and 2' (J). The former passage is the result of philo- sophical and theological reflexion of a late date, which had taught the writer that man is the climax of creation because his personality partakes of the Divine (and in 53 this prerogative is handed on to his offspring) ; but the latter is written from the naive and primitive stand- point of legendary tradition, which dealt only with man's reception of physical life (see next article).
2. Man's primitive condition, 2=-'* (J). The story teaches: that man has work to do in life (2i'); that he needs a counterpart, a help who shall be 'meet for him' (vv."- ^'■^); that man is supreme over the beasts in the intellectual ability, and therefore in the authority, which he possesses to assign to them their several names (vv."- '"); that man, in his primitive condition, was far from being morally or socially perfect; he was simply in a state of savagery, but from a moral stand- point innocent, because he had not yet learned the mean- ing of right and wrong (v.^s) ; and this blissful ignorance is also portrayed by the pleasures of a luxuriant garden or park (vv.s-").
3. The Fall, 2>»'- 3 (J). But there came a point in human evolution when man became conscious of a command — the earliest germ of a recognition of an 'ought' (2'"- 3'); and this at once caused a stress and strain between his lower animal nature, pictured as a serpent, and his higher aspirations after obedience (31 -') [N.B. — The serpent is nowhere, in the OT, identified with the devil; the idea is not found till Wis 2^']; by a deliberate following of the lower nature against which he had begun to strive, man first caused sin to exist ly.'y, with the instant result of a feeling of shame (v.'), and the world-wide consequence of pain, trouble, and death (vv."-"), and the cessation for ever of the former state of innocent ignorance and bliss (vv.'^-m).
On the Babylonian affinities with the story of Adam, see Creation, Eden. A. H. M'Neile.
ADAM IN THE NT.— A. In the Gospels.— 1. In
Mt ig^-s II Mk 10" -8 Jesus refers to Gn 1«. His answer to the Pharisees is intended to show that the provision made for divorce in the Mosaic law (Dt 24') was only a concession to the hardness of men's hearts. The truer and deeper view of marriage must be based on a morality which takes its stand upon the primeval nature of man and woman. And with His quotation He couples one from Gn 2^ (see also Eph S"). The same result is reached in Mt., but with a transposition of the two parts of the argument.
2. In Lk 3'* the ancestry of Jesus is traced up to Adam. As a Gentile writing for Gentiles, St. Luke took every opportunity of insisting upon the universal power of the gospel. Jesus is not, as in St. Matthew's Gospel, a descendant of Abraham only, but of the man to whom all mankind trace their origin. But further, the same Evangelist who relates the fact of the Virgin-birth, and records that Christ was, in His own proper Person, 'Son of God' (l**), claims, by the closing words of the genealogy, that the first man, and hence every human being, is 'son of God.' As Jesus is both human and Divine, so the genealogy preserves the truth that all mankind partake of this twofold nature.
B. In the Epistles. — The truth taught by St. Luke is treated in its redemptive aspect by his master St. Paul.
1. 1 Co 15^. The solidarity of mankind in their physical union with Adam, and in their spiritual union with Christ, involves respectively universal death and life as a consequence of Adam's sin and of Christ's work.
2. In Ro 512-21 this is treated more fully.— (a) VV.12-U. There is a parallelism between Adam and Christ. Both had a universal effect upon mankind — in the case of Adam by a transmission of guilt, and there- fore of death; the corresponding statement concerning Christ is postponed till v.", because St. Paul intervenes with a parenthesis dealing with those who lived before any specific commands were given in the Mosaic law, and yet who sinned, owing to the transmitted effects of Adam's fall, and therefore died. The Apostle, without attempting fully to reconcile them, places side by side the two aspects of the truth — the hereditary trans- mission of guilt, and moral responsibility; 'and thus death made its way to all men, because all sinned.' — (6) VV.18 -1'. The contrast is far greater than the similarity ; in quality (v.«), in quantity (v."), in character and consequences (v."). — (c) Summary of the argument
(VV.18-21).
3. 1 Co IS'"-*'. In the foregoing passages St. Paul deals with the practical moral results of union with Adam and Christ respectively. These verses (o) go behind that, and show that there is a radical difference between the nature of each; (6) look forward, and show that this difference has a vital bearing on the truth of man's resurrection.
(a) w.™-". It is shown, by Illustrations from nature, that it is reasonable to believe man to exist in two different states, one far higher than the other. In vv."i>- « St. Paul adapts Gn 2' (LXX), and reads into the words the doctrinal significance that the body of the first repre.sentative man became the vehicle of a 'psychical' nature, while the body of the Second is the organ of a ' pneumatical ' nature. The second half of his statement — 'the last Adam became a lite- giving spirit ' — appears to be based on a reminiscence of Messianic passages which speak of the work of the Divine Spirit, e.g. Is lli- 2, Jl 2?>-''.
(6) But as the living soul (psyche) preceded the life- giving spirit (pneuma), so it is with the development of mankind (v."). As the first man had a nature in conformity with his origin from clay, while the Second has His origin 'from heaven' (v."), so the nature of
11
ADAM
some men remains earthy, while that ot some has become heavenly (v."). But further, in his present state man is the exact counterpart ot the first man, because of his corporate union with him; but the time is coming when he shall become the exact counterpart ot the Second Man (cf. Gn 22«f ■), because of our spiritual union with Him (v.").
4. In Ph 2' there is an implied contrast between 'Christ Jesus, who . . . deemed it not a thing to be snatched at to be on an equahty with God,' and Adam, who took fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, which God said had made him 'as one of us' (Gn 322).
6. On 1 Ti 2'"- see Eve; and on Jude » see Enoch.
A. H. M'Neile.
ADAM (city). — A city in the Jordan valley, 'beside Zarethan' (Jos 3"); usually identified with Jisr ed- Damieh, near the confluence of the Jabbok and the Jordan, where there was once a bridge. Hiram, Solo- mon's worker in brass, may have had his furnace here (cf. 1 K 7«). G. L. Robinson.
ADAMAH.— A fortified city of Naphtali (Jos 19*1); identified by Conder with 'Admah on the plateau north of Bethshean; placed by the Palestine explorers at ed-Damieh, 5 miles S.W. of Tiberias. See Adami-nekeb
ADAMAKT is twice (Ezk 3», Zee 712) used in AV and RV as tr. of Shamir, which is elsewhere rendered either 'brier' (Is 58 7«- »■ ^ Q" 10" 27'i 32'3) or 'diamond' (Jer 17'). 'Diamond,' which arose from 'adamant' by a variety of spelling ('adamant,' or 'adimant,' then 'diamant' or 'diamond'), has displaced 'adamant' as the name of the precious stone, 'adamant' being now used rhetorically to express extreme hardness.
ADAMI-NEKEB.— 'The pass Adami' (Jos 19=3), on the border of Naphtali. Neubauer and G. A. Smith identify it with ed-Damieh, 5 miles S.W. of Tiberias. See Adamah. G. L. Robinbon.
ADAR (Ezr 61', Est 3'- " 812 9i- «"•, 1 Mac 7"- ", 2 Mac 15'«, Est lO"^ 136 i6zo)._The 12th month in the later Jewish Calendar. See Time.
ADASA. — A town near Bethhoron (1 Mac 7"- ", Jos. Ant. XII. X. 6), now the ruin 'Adaseh near Gibeon.
ADBEEL.— The third son of Ishmael (Gn 25", 1 Ch 1^'), eponym of the N. Arab, tribe, which appears in cuneiform inscrip. as Idiba'il or Idibi'al, and which had its settlements S.W. of the Dead Sea.
ADDAN (1 Es 5=6).— Some of the inhabitants of this place returned with Zerubbabel, but were unable to prove their true Isr. descent by showing to what clan or family they belonged (Ezr 269). The name does not appear in the later lists in Ezr 10, Neh 10. In Neh 76' it appears as Addon.
ADDAR. — 1. A town on the border of Judah south of Beersheba (Jos 156). The site is unknown. 2. See Akd.
ADDER.— See Sebpent.
ADDI. — An ancestor of Jesus, Lk 3".
ADDO. — The grandfather of the prophet Zeehariah (1 Bs 6'). See Iddo.
ADDON.— Neh 7"^. See Addan.
ADDUS.— 1. His 'sons 'returned with Zerub. (lEs56<); omitted in the parallel lists in Ezr 2, Neh 7. 2. See Jaddub.
ADIDA. — A town in the Shephelah (Jos. Ant. xiii. vi. 5) fortified by Simon the Hasmonaean (1 Mac 1268 13"). See Hadid.
ADIEL ('ornament of God'). — 1. A Simeonite prince, 1 Ch 466ff- 2. A priest, 1 Ch 9'^. 3. The father of Azmaveth, David's treasurer, 1 Ch 27^6.
ADIN (Ezr 2i6 8«, Neh T" 10", 1 Es 5"m 862).— See Abintj.
ADINA.— A Reubenite chief, 1 Ch 11«.
ADINO. — The present Heb. text of 2 S 23^ is corrupt.
ADONIJAH
the true reading being preserved in the parallel passage 1 Ch ll'i 'Jashobeam, the son of a Hachmonite, he lifted up his spear.' The last clause, hn ' Brer eth-hanltho, was corrupted into hu 'adlnS ha'elsnl, and then taken erroneously as a proper name, being treated as an alter- native to the preceding ' Josheb-basshebeth, a Tahche- monite' (see Jashobeam).
ADINTJ (1 Es 5", called Adiu in S"). — His descendants returned with Zerub. to the number of 454 (1 Es 5", Ezr 216) or 655 (Neh T"). A second party of 61 (Ezr 86) or 251 (1 Es 862) accompanied Ezra. They are men- tioned among 'the chiefs of the people' who sealed the covenant (Neh 10").
ADITHAIM (Jos 1566).— A town of Judah in the She- phelah. The site is unknown.
ADLAI. — The father of Shaphat, one of David's herdsmen, 1 Ch 272'.
ADMAH (Gn 10" 142- s, Dt 2925, jjos 11').- One of the cities of the Ciccar or 'Round.' It is not noticed as overthrown in the account of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gn 19), but is included in their catastrophe in the two later passages.
ADMATHA (Est 1"). — One of the seven wise men or counsellors of Ahasuerus, who were granted admittance to the king's presence (cf. 2 K 25").
ADMIRATION. — This word in AV means no more than wonder, as Rev 17" ' I wondered with great admiration' (RV 'with a great wonder').
ADNA ('pleasure'). — 1. A contemporary of Ezra, who married a foreign wife (Ezr lO""). 2. The head of the priestly house of Harim (Neh 12").
ADNAH. — 1 . A Manassite officer of Saul who deserted toDavidatZiklag(lCh 122"). 2. An ofiicer in Jehosha- phat's army (2 Ch 17").
ADONI-BEZEK (perhaps a corrupted form of Adoni- zedek, Jos 10' -2'). — A king of Bezek (a different place from that mentioned in 1 S 11'), who was de- feated by Simeon and Judah. The mutilation inflicted upon him — the cutting off ot the thumbs and great toes — was in order to render him harmless, while re- taining him as a trophy; but he died on reaching Jerusalem. Adoni-bezek boasted of having mutilated seventy kings in a similar manner. The passage (Jg 16-') which speaks of Adoni-bezek does not appear to be intact; the original form probably gave more details. W. O. E. Oestemley.
ADONUAH CJah is Lord').— 1. The fourth of the six sons of David who were born in Hebron; his mother was Haggith, a name which is possibly of Philistine origin (2 S 3''). The story ot Adonijah (typical of many an Oriental court intrigue) is recorded in 1 K 1. 2' -66; as here recounted it permits of more than one interpretation, for that this passage has been subjected to an 'editorial' process can scarcely be doubted, and, in. face of the difficulties of interpretation brought about by this, we are forced to reconstruct the course ot events to some extent.
After the death of Absalom, Adonijah became the rightful heir to the throne; there was no sort of doubt about his right, it was taken for granted both by himself and by the people at large (1 K 2"). But Bathsheba, it appears, was anxious to secure the succession for her son, Solomon; with this object in view, she, assisted by the prophet Nathan, heads a party at the court inimical to the claims of Adonijah. It would not have been long before the friends of Adonijah discovered the intrigue that was on foot; and Adonijah, learning the peril he was in of losing his rightful succession, concerts means for counteracting the machinations of his enemies. The old, trusted servants of the kingdom, Joab and Abiathar, rally round him, as one would expect; he gathers his friends together at the stone of Zoheleth, and by the visible act of sacrificing, pro- claims his kingship; this last was, however, an act of
12
ADONIKAM
unwisdom, as it gave a handle to liis enemies, for king David was still alive. These, naturally on the alert, represent the gathering to David, now very aged, as an attempt to usurp the throne while he is yet alive; Bathsheba reminds David ot his promise that Solomon, her son, should succeed him on the throne (1") [this may or may not have been the case; there is no refer- ence to it elsewhere, and it certainly does not accord with what we read in 1" 2"]; David, remembering perhaps the rebellion of Absalom (whom Adonijah seems to have resembled in temperament as well as in outward appearance), is easily prevailed upon to transfer the succession to Solomon (l""). Even so it is very doubtful whether Bathsheba would have succeeded in her plan had it not been that she was enabled to , gain Benaiah to her side; as captain of the king's body-guard (the Cherethites and Pelethites), Benaiah was the man upon whom the issue really depended, for he commanded the only armed troops that were Immediately available. In an emergency such as this, everything would depend upon who could strike the first decisive blow. Had the old commander-in-chief Joab had time to assemble his forces, no doubt the issue would have been different; but Bathsheba and her friends had laid their plans too well, and they won the day. Adonijah is 'pardoned' (l^^- m); it would nave been dangerous, owing to the attitude of the people (2"), to put him to death until Solomon was secure on the throne; but as he was rightful heir, the safety of Solomon's throne could never be guaranteed as long as Adonijah was alive. Bathsheba was not the woman to be oblivious of this fact, accordingly she recommences her intrigues; she represents to Solomon that Adonijah is desirous of marrying Abishag the Shunammite, the maiden who was brought to David in his old age (.!'■ *), and who, according to Oriental ideas, was regarded as one of the royal wives. Such a desire was naturally inter- preted by Solomon as an intention of seeking the kingdom (222), and self-preservation compelled him to decree Adonijah's death, a sentence which was carried out by Benaiah (v.^s).
Theabove is not in entire accordwiththeBiblical account, which in its present form gives rise to a number of serious difficulties. We shall mention but two of these. The request which Adonijah aalcs Bathsheba to convey (2'^) was the most grievous insult that could have been offered to the king; Adonijah would have known precisely what the result would be, viz. death to himself, unless supported by an army; but there is no hint that he contemplated an armed rising. Secondly, Bathsheba is quite the last person he would have asked to prefer this request; as mother of the king, andp rime mover mthesuccessful conspiracy which had robbed him of his succession, he would know better than to place himself so gratuitously within her power.
Adonijah is one of those men whose cruel fate and tragic death, both undeserved, must call forth deep sympathy and commiseration.
2. Perhaps =Adonikam, one of those that sealed the covenant (Neh 9" 10").
3. One of those sent, in the third year of Jehosha- phat, to teach the Law in the cities of Judah (2 Ch 17'-»).
W. O. E. Oesterley.
ADONIKAM ('my Lord has arisen'), Ezr 2" 8'=, Neh 7'8, 1 Es 5" 8»9.— The head of a Jewish family after the Exile; apparently called in Neh 10'" Adonijah.
ADONntAM, ADORAM.— The latter name occurs 2 S 202«, 1 K 12i«, and is probably a corruption of Adoniram. Adoniram superintended the levies employed in the public works during the reigns of David, Solomon, and Rehoboam. He was stoned to death by the rebellious Israelites when sent to them by Rehoboam (1 K 12>«).
ADOHIS.— The phrase rendered by EV 'pleasant plants,' and by RVm 'plantings of Adonis' (Is 17'<i), alludes to the miniature gardens whose rapid decUne symbolized the death of this god, or rather the spring verdure of which he Is a personification. This phase of
ADOPTION
the myth, which the Greeks obtained from the Semitic Tammuz cult, through the Phoenicians, where the god was worshipped under the title of Adon ('lord'), is used by Isaiah to depict tlie fading hope of Israel. See Tammuz. N. Koenig.
ADONl-ZEDEK.— King of Jerusalem at the time of the invasion of Canaan by the Israelites under Joshua. After the Gibeonites had succeeded in making a league with Israel, he induced four other kings to unite with him against the invaders. Joshua came unexpectedly upon the allied kings, and utterly routed them. They were discovered in a cave at Makkedah, and brought before Joshua, who ordered them to be slain. Their bodies were hung up until the evening, when they were taken down and flung into the cave where they had hid themselves. The mouth of the cave was filled up with great stones (Jos IQi-^'). Some have identified Adonl-zedek with Adoni-bezek of Jg 1'.
ADOPTION.— The term 'adoption' is found five times in St. Paul's letters (Ro S'*- ^ 9*, Gal #, Eph 1'), and not elsewhere in the NT. In Ro 9' reference is made to the favoured position of the Jews as the chosen people. To them belonged the adoption, the position of sons (Ex 422). In the remaining passages St. Paul uses the word to describe the privileges of the Christian as opposed to the unbeliever. He is trying, as a rule, to bring home to Gentile readers the great change wrought by the coming of Christ. Though W. M. Ramsay has attempted to identify peculiarities of Syro-Greek law in Gal 4, and though it is true that 'no word is more common in Greek inscriptions of Hellenistic times: the idea like the word is native Greek,' yet St. Paul's use of the term seems to be based on Roman law. See Hastings' ERE, s.v.
Adoption in Roman law.could be effected by a modified form of the method of sale known as mancipation. ' The Roman Mancipation required the presence, first, of all of the parties, the vendor and the vendee. . . . There were also no less than five witnesses; and an anomalous personage, the libripens, who brought with him a pair of scales to weigh the uncoined copper money of Rome. Certain formal gestures were made and sentences pro- nounced. The (purchaser) simulated the payment of a price by striking the scales with a piece of money, and the (vendor) ratified what had been done in a set form of words' (Maine, Ancient Law, vi.). The witnesses were necessary, especially in the age before written documents, to vouch for the regularity of the procedure, and to ensure the genuineness of the transaction.
Some of the details of the procedure are said to be reflected in the language of St. Paul. 'To redeem those under the law' (Gal45) suggests that God's action in sending His Son to buyout mankind from slavery to the Law, may be illustrated by the adopting parent's purchase of ason from his natural father.
Again, Dr. W. E. Ball {Contemp. Rev., 1891) has pointed out that the work of the Spirit (Ro 8") is parallel to the place of the five witnesses in the process of adoption. The reality of God's adoption is assured by the Spirit's witness. Dr. Ball brings out the general force of the metaphor thus. Any one who was made a son by adoption, severed all his former ties. Even his debts appear to have been cancelled. 'The adopted person became in the eyes of the law a new creature. He was bom again into a new family. By the aid of this figure, the Gentile convert waa enabled to realize in a vivid manner the fatherhood of God, brother' hood of the faithful, the obliteration of past penalties, the right to the mystic inheritance.' The figure of adoption describes clearly the effect of God's revelation of Himself aa Father.
St. Paul speaks of adoption, as both present (Ro 8"') and future (v.^s). With Pfieiderer we must distinguish three moments in adoption. It involves here and now, freedom from the Law, and the possession of the spirit of adoption which enables us to address God as our Father. Adoption wUl be completed by the redemption of our body, the inheritance with Christ in glory. ' Be- lievers have this blessing (adoption) already, but only
13
ADORA
in an inward relation and as Divine right, with which, however, the objective and real state does not yet corre- spond' (Meyer on Ro 8»). With St. Paul's view of adoption now and adoption hereafter compare 1 Jn S^- In Eph 15 adoption seems to mean that conforming to the character of Christ which begins here and is to be perfected in the future.
That the word ' adoption ' does not represent believers as children of God by nature, is undeniable. But it would be a mistake to press the term as giving a complete account of St. Paul's views of the relations of God to man. Roman law afforded St. Paul illustrations rather than theories. It is not clear whether in Ro 8" he conceives the spirit of sonship which cries 'Abba, Father,' to be received in baptism or at conversion, or on the other hand to be the natural cry of the human heart. But in any case, he has found the love of God in Christ, and the change in his life is such that the complete change produced in a man's condition by adoption is only a pale reflex of the Apostle's experience. See, further. Inheritance. H. G. Wood.
ADORA (1 Mac IS^").— The same as Adoraim. ADORAIM (2 Ch H').— A city of Judah fortified by' Rehoboam on the S.W. of his mountain kingdom; now Dura, a small village at the edge of the mountains W. ot Hebron. ADORAM. — See Adoniram.
ADORATION.— The word is not found in AV or RV, and even for the verb RV substitutes 'worship' in Bel *; but both the idea and its expression in act are frequent.
Amongst the Hebrews the postures and gestures expressive of adoration underwent slight change in the course of time. Kissing the statue of a god (1 K 19", Hos 13'; cf. Job 31") was an early Arab custom, and became a technical meaning of adoratio amongst the Romans; but in this usage the sense is identical with that of worship. Adoration proper was expressed by prostration to the ground, or even by lying prone with the face touching the ground (Gn 17', Jos S", Job 1™, Ps 95= 99', Dn 3*). As elsewhere, this posture was not at first confined to intercourse with God. As an act of special courtesy it was adopted towards kings (2 S 14«), towards strangers of mysterious quality (Gn 18'), as an expression of close and respectful attach- ment (1 S 20"), or with the design to conciliate (Gn 33', 1 S 252', Est 8', Mt 1828), or to honour (2 K 4"). 'Sat before the Lord' (2 S 7'') may refer to a special and solemn mode of sitting, as in 1 K 18"; the Arabs are said to have sat during a part of their worship in such a way that the head could easily be bent forward and made to touch the ground.
Outside the Christian sphere, prostration continued in the East to be a mark of submission and homage, rendered to such men as were for any reason or even by convention invested in thought with Divine qualities or powers. The NT, by example and less frequently by precept, confines this fullest mode of worship to God, and protests against its use towards men. Jairus' act (Mk 5^, Lk 8'") was prompted by intense yearning, a father's self-abandonment in the sore sickness of his child, and must not be taken as implying a full recogni- tion of Christ's Divinity. Like Mary's posture at Bethany (Jn 11''), it was a preparation for the attitude of the disciples after their visit to the empty tomb (Mt 28'). Whatever Cornelius intended (Ac 10»'), Peter found an opportunity to lay down the rule that no man under any circumstances is an appropriate object of adoration; and John repeats that rule twice not far from the end of Scripture (Rev 19i» 228'-). The attempt to alienate from God His peculiar honours is a work of Satan (Mt 4«); and adoration naturally follows a conviction of the presence of God (1 Co 1425).
R. W. Moss. ADRAIKQIELECH. — 1. Adrammelech and Anamme-
li
ADUMMIM
lech (wh. see), the gods of Sepharvaim to whom the colonists, brought to Samaria from Sepharvaim, burnt their children in the fire (2 K 17")- There is no good explanation of the name: it was once supposed to be for Adar-malik, 'Adar the prince.' But Adar is not known to be a Babylonian god, and compound Divine names are practically unknown, nor were human sacri- fices offered to Babylonian gods.
2. Adrammelech and Sharezer (wh. see) are given in 2 K 19" as the sons of Sennacherib who murdered their father. [The Kethibh of Kings omits 'his sons']. The Babylonian Chronicle says: 'On the 20th of Tebet, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, was killed by his son in an insurrection'; and all other native sources agree in ascribing the murder to one son, but do not name him. Adrammelech is impossible as an Assyrian personal name, and probably arises here from some corruption of the text. The sons of Sennacherib known to us are Ashur-nadin-shum, king of Babylon, B.C. 700-694; Esarhaddon, who succeeded his father, B.C. 681; Ardi-Belit, Crown Prince, B.C. 694; Ashur- shum-ushabshi, for whom Sennacherib built a palace in Tarbisi ; Ashur-ilu-muballitsu, for whom Sennacherib built a palace in Asshur ; and Shar-etir- Ashur. Possibly Ardi-Belit is intended. C. H. W. Johns.
ADRAMYTTIUM.— Atownof Mysia (in the Roman province of Asia) on the Adramyttene Gulf, originally a native State, and only later Hellenlzed by the Delians, who had been driven away from home by the Athenians (422 B.C.). In Roman times it was a place of consider- able importance both politically and intellectually. It possessed a harbour, and a ship belonging to the place carried St. Paul from Caesarea by Sidon and Cyprus to Myra (Ac 27'-^). A. Souter.
ADRIA (more correctly Hadria). — The name was at first confined to the northern part ot what we call the Adriatic Sea, or to a stretch of land near that, and was derived from a once important Etruscan city. Atria, situated at the mouth of the Po. The rest of what we call the Adriatic Sea appears to have been at that time included in the term Ionian Sea or Ionian Gulf. It was only later, with the growth of the Syracusan colonies on the coasts of Italy and Illyria, that the name 'Hadria' came to include the whole Adriatic, and even then, at first, it was the practice to call the southernmost part the Ionian Sea. This reduction of the Ionian Sea to a part of Hadria led, when the name ' Ionian Sea ' was transferred to the Sicilian Sea in the W. of Greece, to a misuse of the term ' Hadria.' It was extended to include the Tarentine Gulf, the Sicilian Sea, the Corinthian Gulf, and even the waters between Crete and Malta, as in Ac 27''. A. Soutek.
ADRIEL.— Son of Barzillai, the Meholathite. He married Merab, the eldest daughter of Saul, who should have been given to David as the slayer of Goliath (1 S 18", 2 S 218 [in the latter 'Michal' is a mistake for 'Merab']).
ADUEL.— An ancestor of Tobit, To 1'; a variant form of Adiel, 1 Ch i^.
ADULLAM.— A city in the Shephelah, assigned to Judah; named between Jarrauth and Socoh (Jos 15»5 etc.). It is probably the modern 'Id el-Ma' , about 8 miles N.W. of Beit Jibrln. Rehoboam fortified it (2 Ch 11'), and the children of Judah returned to it after the captivity (Neh ll'o). The Cave of Adullam, the refuge of David (1 S 22' etc.), must have been one of those m the adjoining valley. Adullamite (Gn 38' etc.) =an inhabitant of Adullam. w. Ewinq
ADULTERY.— See Chimes, Marriage.
ADTHSDHIM. The Ascent of (Jos 15' 18") is the steep pass in which the road ascends from Jericho to Jerusalem. Its modern name, Tal'al ed-Dumm 'the ascent of blood' or 'red,' is most probably due to the red mart which is so distinctive a feature of the pass
ADVENT
In this pass, notorious for robberies and murders, la the traditional 'inn' of Lli 10".
ADVENT.— See Pabousia.
ADVERTISE.— Ru i' 'I thought to advertise thee,' i.e. ini!orm thee; so Nu 24".
ADVOCATE (Gr. paraUStos). — The word occurs only in the writings ot St. John: four times in his Gospel (1416. 26 1526 167) of the Holy Spirit, and once in his 1st Epistle (2') of Jesus. It is unfortunate that our English Versions have rendered it in the former ' Com- forter' (RVm 'or Advocate, or Helper, Gr. Paradete') and in the latter 'Advocate' (RVm 'or Comforter, or Helper, Gr. Paraclete').
' Comforter,' though a true and beautiful designation of the Holy Spirit, is an impossible rendering. It is true that parakalein means, either 'comfort' (Mt 5*, 2 Co 1* 7") or ' caU to one's side' (Ac 28™). but paraUltos must be associated with the latter signification. It is a passive form, and denotes not 'one who comforts (parakaleiy but 'onewboiscalledintoaid (parakaieitai).' It was a forensic term, signifying the counsel for the defence and corresponding exactly to our 'advocate' (Lat. advocatus) . Singularly enough, the Greeli-speaking Fathers mostly took the word in the impossible sense of 'Comforter,' influenced perhaps by the false analogy of Menahem {Consolalar), a Jewish name for the Messiah. Cf. Cyril of Jerusalem, Cat. xvi. 20: 'He is called Parakletos because He comforts (parakalei) and consoles and helps our infirmity.' Were it understood in its Uteral sense of ' Strengthener' (Cora/'orfaior), 'Comforter' would be a fair rendering; but as a matter of fact it originated in an error; nor does it suggest the true idea to the English reader. It should be observed that ' comfortless' in Jn 14i8 lends it no support. RV gives 'desolate'; literally, as in the margin of both Versions, ' orphans.'
The substitution of 'Advocate' for 'Comforter' reveals a wealth ot meaning in our Lord's address to the Eleven on that night in which He was betrayed. During His eartlily ministry He had been God's Advocate with men, pleading God's cause with them and seeking to win them for Him. He was going away, but God would not be left without an Advocate on the earth. ' I will pray the Fatheri and another Advocate he will give you, that he may be with you for ever — the Spirit of Truth.' Not received, because unrecognized, by the unspiritual world, the Advocate would be recognized and welcomed by believers (Jn 14"- ". 25. 26). ^nd He would testify to them about Jesus, the unseen Lord, and they would repeat His testimony to the world (1626. 27). And He would make their testimony effective, 'convicting the world regarding sin, righteousness, and judgment' (168-").
Jesus told the Eleven that it was 'expedient for them that he should go away,' since His departure was the condition of the advent of the Advocate (167); and 1 Jn 2' furnishes a profound commentary on this declaration. Jesus in the days of His flesh was God's Advocate on the earth, pleading with men for God. The Holy Spirit has taken His place, and performs this office. But Jesus is still an Advocate. He is the Advocate of sinners up in heaven, pleading their cause with God, and, in the language of St. Paul (Ro 8^), 'making intercession for them.'
And thus it was expedient for us that He should go away, that we might enjoy a double advocacy — the Holy Spirit's here, pleading with us for God; and that of Jesus in the court of heaven, pleading with God for us. There are three dispensations in the history of redemption, each richer and fuller than the last: (1) The OT dispensation, under which men knew only of God in high heaven; (2) that of the Incarnation, under which the Father came near to men in Jesus Christ and by His gracious advocacy appealed to their hearts; (3) that of the Holy Spirit, under which the
AGE, AGED, OLD AGE
Holy Spirit is the Father's Advocate here, and Jesus 'our Advocate above, our Friend before the throne of love.' David Smith.
AEDIAS (1 Es 9").— One of those who agreed to put away their 'strange' wives. The name is probably a corruption for Elijah of Ezr 102».
.SINEAS. — The name of a paralytic at Lydda who was cured by Peter (Ac 9'3- »).
JESOIX. — Jn 32', meaning 'springs'; a site near Salim [wh. see].
.ffiSORA (Jth i*). — An unknown Samaritan town, possibly mod. Asireh, N.E. of Shechem.
ACrABUS. — A Christian prophet of Jerusalem (Ac ll27£f . 2I11"), whose prediction of a famine over the (civilized) world occasioned the sending of alms from Antioch to Jerusalem. The famine happened, not simultaneously in all countries, in Claudius' reign (Suetonius, Tacitus). Agabus also foretold St. Paul's imprisonment, by binding his feet and hands with the Apostle's girdle (cf. Jer IS'"). A. J. Maclean.
AG-ADE (formerly but erroneously read Agane). — A city of Northern Babylonia and the capital of Sargon, the founder of the first Semitic empire (c. B.C. 3800). As was first discovered by George Smith, Agade was the Semitic Akkadu (see Akkad). It stood near Sippara or Sepharvaim (wh. see), and may have been in later times a suburb of the latter town. A. H. Sayce.
A6AG. — 1. Nu 24', probably a copyist's error: LXX has Gog. 2. 1 S IS, the king of Amalek, whom Saul defeated and spared; some Gr. MSS name his father Aser (15"). Whetfier he met his fate bravely or timidly cannot be determined from the extant text (v.32) Samuel considered him to be under the ban of extermination, and therefore killed him as a religious act (V.3S). J. Taylor.
AGAGITE.— The designation of Haman (Est 3i- " 83. 6 924). Josephus (Ant. xi. vi. 5) calls him an Amalekite. The epithet in Esther indicates that, as Agag was Saul's adversary, so Haman was the foe of this other Benjamite. The LXX reads Bugaios, 3' 8=, omits at 31", and at 9'" IB'" has Macedonian, a word of evil connotation after Antiochus Epiphanes. J. Taylor.
AGAIN. — The Eng. word 'again' means in AV either 'a second time,' as Ph 4's, 'ye sent once and again'; or 'back,' as in Mt 11* 'go and show John again those things which ye do hear' (i.e. 'go back and show John').
AGAPE.— See Love Feast.
AGAR. — The sons of Agar are mentioned in Bar S'^; they are called Hagarenes in Ps 838, and Hagrites in
1 Ch 5"- 2" 2731. Their country lay east of Gilead. AGATE. — See Jewels and Pheciods Stones. AGE, AGED, OLD AGE.— In the OT advancing age is
represented by words of different root-meanings. The aged man is zagren, perhaps 'grey-bearded' (Gn 48'",
2 S 19*2, Job 122" 32», Ps 71i8, Jer 6"); 'old age' is also sebhah, i.e. 'hoary-headedness' (Gn 15'^, 1 K 14'; cf. Gn 4238, Ps 711S). According to the Mishna (Ab. V. 21) the latter word implies a greater age (70) than the former (60). But in Job 15'° (cf. 29^) yashlsh, i.e. 'very aged,' marks a further advance in years, of which the sign is a withering of strength. Ps 90'" is the only passage in which a definite period is fixed for human life. The idea that 'hale old age' (kelach) is a blessing is expressed in Job S"; the contrast is furnished by the gloomy picture (30^) of the ' fathers ' whose old age lacks vigour.
The wisdom of the old was proverbial (Job 12i2 327), though there were exceptions (Job 32' Ps 119'™). The experience of the older men fitted them for positions of trust and authority; hence by a natural transition of thought 'elders' became an oflBcial title Ex 3". Ac 11"). Respect is to be shown to the old (Lv \%'\ Pr 2322), and the decay of reverence for age is an evil
15
AGEE
omen {Dt 28", 1 K 12', Is 47»). It was to the grand- mother of Obed that the Hebrew women said ' he shall be ... a nourisher of thine old age' (Ru 4"); the dutiful affection of children's children illumined the gracious message of Israel's God: 'even to old age I am he, and even to hoar hairs will I carry you' (Is 46<).
J. G. Tasker.
AGEE. — The father of Shammah, one of 'the Three' (2 S 23").
AGGABA (1 Es 5").— In Ezr 2« Hagabah, Neh 7" Hagaba.
AGG^US.— The form used in 1 Es 6i V and 2 Es 1" for Haggai (wh. see).
AGIA (1 Es 53<).— In Ezr 2", Neh 7" Hattil.
AGONY (Lk 22«) is not a translation but a trans- literation of the Greek agSnia, equivalent to St. Matthew's 'sorrowful and sore troubled' (26") and St. Mark's 'greatly amazed and sore troubled' (14^3). The word does not mean ' agony ' in the English sense. Agon was 'a contest,' and agonia the trepidation of a combatant about to enter the Usts. Christ's Agony in Gethsemane was the horror which overwhelmed Him as He faced the final ordeal. David Smith.
AGBAFHA. — See Unwritten Satinqs.
AGRICULTURE.— Throughout the whole period of their national existence, agriculture was the principal occupation of the Hebrews. According to the priestly theory, the land was the property of J"; His people enjoyed the usufruct (Lv 25^). In actual practice, the bulk of the land was owned by the towns and village communities, each free husbandman having his allotted portion of the common lands. The remainder included the Crown lands and the estates of the nobility, at least under the monarchy. Husbandry — the Biblical term for agriculture (2 Oh 26") — was highly esteemed, and was regarded as dating from the very earliest times (Gn 42). It was J" Himself who taught the husbandman his art (Is 28»). ">
Of the wide range of topics embraced by agriculture in the wider significance of the term, some of the more important wiU be treated in separate articles, such as Cart, Flax, Food, Garden, Olive, Ox, Thorns, Vine, etc. The present article will deal only with the more restricted field of the cultivation of the principal cereals. These were, in the first rank, wheat and barley: less important were the crops of millet and spelt, and those of the pulse family — lentils, beans, and the like.
1. The agricultural year began in the latter half of October, with the advent of the early rains, which soften the ground baked by the summer heat. Then the husbandman began to prepare his fields for the winter seed by means of the plough. From the details given in post-Biblical literature, it is evident that the Hebrew plough differed but little from its modern Syrian counter- part (see PEFSt, 1891). The essential part or 'body' of the latter, corresponding in position to the modern plough-tail or 'stilt,' consists of a piece of tough wood bent and pointed at the foot to receive an iron sheath or share (1 S 13^"), the upper end being furnished with a short cross-piece to serve as a handle. The pole is usually in two parts: one stout and curved, through the lower end of which the ' body ' is passed just above the share; at the other end is attached the lighter part of the pole, through the upper end of which a stout pin is passed to serve as attachment for the yoke. The plough was usually drawn by two or more oxen (Am 6i'), or by asses (Is 30^), but the employment of one of each kind was forbidden (Dt 22i"). The yoke is a short piece of wood— the bar of Lv 26" (RV)— fitted with two pairs of converging pegs, the lower ends connected by thongs, to receive the necks of the draught animals. Two smaller pegs in the middle of the upper side hold in position a ring of willow, rope, or other material, which is passed over the end of the pole and kept in position by the
16
AGRICULTURE
pin above mentioned. As the ploughman required but one hand to guide the plough, the other was free to wield the ox -goad, a light wooden pole shod at one end with an iron spike wherewith to prick the oxen (cf. Ac 9=), and having at the other a small spade with which to clean the plough-share. Gardens, vineyards (Is 5« RV), and parts too difficult to plough were worked with the hoe or mattock (Is 7^).
The prevailing mode of sowing was by hand, as in the parable of the Sower, the seed being Immediately ploughed in. It was possible, however, to combine both operations by fixing a seed-box to the plough-tail. The seed passed through an aperture at the bottom of the box and was conducted by a pipe along the tail. It thus fell into the drill behind the share and was immediately covered in. The patriarch Abraham was credited by Jewish legend with the invention of this form of seeding-plough (Bk. of Jubilees ll^ss). This mode of sowing is probably referred to in Is 28'* (' the wheat in rows' RV). There is no evidence that harrows were used for covering in the seed.
2. During the period of growth the crops were exposed to a variety of risks, such as the delay or scanty fall of the spring rains (the 'latter rain' of the OT, Am 4'), blasting by the hot sirocco wind, mildew, hail — these three are named together in Hag 2"; cf. Dt 28*^, Am 4' — and worst of all a visitation of locusts. The pro- ductiveness of the soil naturally varied greatly (cf. Mt 138). Under favourable conditions, as in the Hauran, wheat is said to yield a hundredfold return.
3. Owing to the wide range of climatic conditions in Palestine, the time of the harvest was not uniform, being earliest in the semi-tropical Jordan valley, and latest in the uplands of Galilee. The average harvest period, reckoned by the Hebrew legislation (Lv 23i5, Dt 16') to cover seven weeks, may be set down as from the middle of April to the beginning of June, the barley ripening about a fortnight sooner than the wheat.
The standing corn was reaped with the sickle (Dt 16' RV), the stalks being cut considerably higher up than with us. The handfuls of ears were gathered into sheaves, and these into heaps (not into shocks) for transportation to the threshing-floor. The corners of the field were left to be reaped, and the fallen ears to be gleaned, by the poor and the stranger (Lv 19"-, Dt 2419, Ru 221I).
For small quantities the ears were stripped by beating with a stick (Ru 2", Jg 6" RV), otherwise the threshing was done at the village threshing-floor. This was a large, specially prepared (Jer 51^3 RV) space on an elevated situation. Hither the corn was brought on asses or on a cart (Am 2"), and piled in heaps. Enough sheaves were drawn out to form a layer, 6 to 8 ft. wide, all round the heap. Over this layer several oxen, un- muzzled according to law (Dt 25*), and harnessed together as represented on the Egyptian monuments, might be driven. More effective work, however, was got from the threshing -drag and the threshing -wagon, both still in use in the East, the former being the favourite in Syria, the latter in Egypt. The former consists of two or three thick wooden planks held together by a couple of cross-pieces, the whole measuring from 5 to 7 ft. in length by 3 to 4 ft. in breadth. The under- side of the drag is set with sharp pieces of hardstone (cf. Is 4115), which strip the ears as the drag, on which the driver sits or stands, is driven over the sheaves, and at the same time cut up the stalks into small lengths. The threshing-wagon is simply a wooden frame con- taining three or more rollers set with parallel metal discs, and supporting a seat for the driver. The former instrument was used by Araunah the Jebusite (2 S 24^), while the latter is probably referred to in ' the threshing wheel' of Pr 2025 (RV). Both are mentioned together in the original of Is 28".
After the threshing came the winnowing. By means of a five- or six-pronged fork, the ' fan' of the OT and
AGRIPPA
NT, the mass of grain, chaS, and chopped straw is tossed into the air in the western evening breeze. The chaff is carried farthest away (Ps 1*), the light morsels of straw to a shorter distance, while the heavy grains of wheat or barley fall at the winnower's feet. After being thoroughly sifted with a variety of sieves (Am 9», Is 302S), the grain was stored in jars for immediate use, and in cisterns (Jer 418), or in specially constructed granaries, the 'bams' of Mt e*".
4. Of several important matters, such as irrigation, the terracing of slopes, manuring of the fields, the conditions of lease, etc. — regarding which Vogelstein's treatise Die Landwirtschaft in PalUstCia is a mine of information tor the Roman period — there is little direct evidence in Scripture. Agriculture, as is natural, bulks largely in the legislative codes of the Pentateuch. Some of the provisions have already been cited. To these may be added the solemn injunction against removing a neighbour's 'landmarks,' the upright stones marking the boundaries of his fields (Dt 19". 27"), the humanitarian provision regarding strayed cattle (Ex 23*, Dt 221"), the law that every field must lie fallow for one year in seven (Ex 23'°'-; see, for later development. Sabbatical Yeah), the law forbidding the breeding of hybrids and the sowing of a field with two kinds of seed (Lv 19" RV), and the far-reaching provision as to the inalienability of the land CLv 258*).
The fact that no department of human activity has enriched the language of Scripture, and in consequence the language of the spiritual life in all after ages, with so many appropriate figures of speech, is a striking testi- mony to the place occupied by agriculture in the life and thought of the Hebrew people. A. R. S. Kennedy.
AGRIPPA.— See Herod, Nos. 6. 7.
AGUE. — See Medicine.
AGUB. — Son of Jakeh; author ot the whole or part of Pr 30, one of the latest sections of the book. His name may signify 'hireling' or 'assembler'; cf. Vulg. ' Verba, Congregantis filii Vomentis.' Some have thought that massa (AV 'the prophecy,' RV 'the oracle'), which otherwise is out of place, is the name of his country (Gn 25"). J. Taylob.
AHAB. — 1. Son of Omri, and the most noted member of his dynasty, king of Israel from about 875 to about 853 B.C. The account of him in our Book of Kings is drawn from two separate sources, one of which views him more favourably than the other. From the secular point of view he was an able and energetic prince; from the religious point of view he was a dangerous innovator, and a patron of foreign gods. His alliance with the Phoenicians was cemented by hisimarriage with Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre (1 K le^i), who was also, if we may trust .josephus, priest of Astarte. At a later date Ahab entered into alliance with Judah, giving his daughter Athaliah in marriage to Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat (2 K 8"). His wealth is indicated by the ivory palace which he built (1 K 21' 22").
The reign of Ahab was marked by frequent wars with the Syrian kingdom of Damascus. Benhadad, the king of that country, was so successful that he claimed suzerainty over Israel — a clafm which Ahab was at first disposed to admit (1 K 202«). But when Benhadad went so far as to threaten Samaria with indiscriminate plunder, Ahab resisted. In two campaigns he defeated the invaders, even taking their haughty leader prisoner. Contrary to the advice of the prophetic party, he treated his captive magnanimously, and concluded an alliance with him, stipulating only that the cities formerly taken from Israel should be restored. The alliance was one for trade and commerce, each party having bazaars assigned him in the capital of the other (1 K 20«). It is not improbable also that common measures of defence were planned against the Assyrians, who were showing hostile intentions in the region of the Lebanon. In the battle of Karkar, which was fought against these invaders
B 17
AHAZ
in the year 854, Ahab was present with ten thousand troops. This we learn from the Assyrian inscriptions.
The reUgious innovation for which Ahab is held responsible by the Hebrew writers, was the introduction of the Phoenician Baal as one of the gods of Israel. It is clear that Ahab had no idea of displacing Jahweh altogether, for he gave his children names which indi- cated his devotion to Him. But to please his wife he allowed her to introduce and foster the worship of her own divinities. Her thought was that with the religion of her own country she would introduce its more advanced civiUzation. The champion of Jahweh's exclusive right to the worship of Israel was Elijah. This prophet, by his bold challenge to the priests of Baal, roused the anger of Jezebel, and was obliged to flee the country (1 K 17-19). Other prophets do not seem to have been disturbed, for we find them at the court of Ahab in the last year of his life (22"). These, however, were subservient to the crown, while Elijah was not only a protestant against religious changes, but the champion of the common people, whose rights were so signally violated in the case of Naboth.
Ahab died fighting for his people. The Syrian war had again broken out — apparently because Benhadad had not kept his agreement. Ahab therefore tried to recover Ramoth-gilead, being assisted by Jehoshaphat of Judah. In the first encounter Ahab was slain, his reputationforcourage being vindicated by thedirection of his adversary to his soldiers — ' Fight neither with small nor with great, but only with the king ot Israel' (1 K 2231).
2. A false prophet 'roasted in the fire' by the king of Babylon (Jer 2921'). H. P. Smith.
AHARAH.— See Ahibam.
AHARHEL.— A descendant of Judah (1 Ch 48).
AHASBAI.— Father of EUphelet (2 S 238<), and a member ot the family of Maacah, settled at Beth- maacah (20"), or a native of the Syrian kingdom of Maacah (10«- »).
AHASUERUS (old Pers. KhshayarsM).—'rhe Persian king (B.C. 485-465) known to Greek history as Xerxes. Complaints against the Jews were addressed to him (Ezr 4«). It is he who figures in the Book of Esther; Dn 91 erroneously makes him father of Darius the Mede, confusing the latter with Darius Hystaspis, the father of Xerxes. The Ahasuerus of To 14is is Cyaxares.
J. Taylor.
AHAVA was a settlement in Babylonia lying along a stream of the same name, probably a large canal near the Euphrates. None of the conjectures as to the exact locality can be verified. It was here that Ezra mustered his people before their departure for Jerusalem (Ezr Si^- 21. ai). Some district north or north-west of Babylon, near the northern boundary of Babylonia, is most probable. J. F. McCurdy.
AHAZ, son and successor of Jotham, king of Judah, came to the throne about B.C. 734. The only notable event of his reign,' so far as we know, was the invasion made by his northern neighbours, Pekah of Israel and Rezln of Damascus. These two kings had made an • alliance against the Assyrians, and were trying to compel Ahaz to join the coalition. His refusal so exasperated them that they planned Ms deposition and the appoint- ment of a creature of their own to the throne. Ahaz did not venture to take the field, but shut himself up in Jerusalem and strengthened its fortifications. It was perhaps at this time of need that he sacrificed his son as a burnt-offering to Jahweh. Isaiah tried to encourage the faint-hearted king, pointing out that his enemies had no prospect of success or even of long existence. But Ahaz had more faith in political measures than in the prophetic word. He sent a message to Tiglath- pileser, king of Assyria, submitting himself unreservedly to him. The embassy carried substantial evidence of
AHAZIAH
AHITOB
vassalage in the shape of all the gold and silver from the palace treasury and from the Temple (2 K 16, Is 7).
Tiglath-pileser was already on the march, and at once laid siege to Damascus, thus freeing Jerusalem from its enemies. Two years later the Assyrian king entered Damascus, and was visited there by Ahaz. The result of the visit was the construction of a new altar for the Temple at Jerusalem, and apparently the introduction of Assyrian divinities (2 K 16'»ff). H. P. Smith.
AHAZIAH. — Two kings of this name are mentioned in the OT, one in each of the Israelite kingdoms.
1. Ahazlah of Israel was the son of Ahab, and ruled after him only two years or parts of years. He is said to have been a worshipper of Baal, that is, to have continued the religious policy of his father. By a fall from a window of his palace he was seriously injured, and, after lingering awhile, died from the accident. The Moabites, who had been subject to Israel, took this opportunity to revolt. Ahaziah is accused of sending messengers to inquire of the celebrated oracle at Ekron, and is said unexpectedly to have received his answer from Elijah (2 K 1).
2. Ahaziah of Judah was son of Jehoram and grandson of Jehoshaphat. Under the influence of his mother, who was a daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, it is not surprising to read that he walked in the ways of Ahab. All that we know of him is that he continued the league with Israel, and that, going to visit his uncle Jehoram in Jezreel, he was involved in his fate at the revolt of Jehu (2 K 9"). H. P. Smith.
AHBAN,— A Judahite, son of Abishur (1 Ch 2").
AHER ('another').— A Benjamite (1 Ch T'^).
AHI ('brother').—!. A Gadite (1 Ch 5"). 2. An Asherite (1 Ch 7"). But the reading is in neither case free from doubt.
AHIAH.— See Ahijah.
AHIAM.— One of David's heroes (1 Ch 11»).
AHIAN ('fraternal'). — A Manassite, described as 'son of Shemida' (1 Ch 7"); but the name is scarcely that of an individual ; note in the context Abiezer and Shechem, and cf. Nu 263«-
AHIEZER ('brother is help').— 1. Son of Ammi- shaddai, one of the tribal princes who represented Dan at the census and on certain other occasions (Nu 1'^ 22« 756. 71 1026 (p)). 2. The chief of the Benjamite archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch 12' -3).
AHIHUD ('brotheris majesty'). — 1. The prince of the tribe of Asher (Nu 34." (P)). 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch 8«- ').
AHUAH.— 1. 1 S 142- 18 (AV Ahiah), a priest, son of Ahitub, who had charge of the oracular ephod and consulted it for Saul [read 'ephod' for 'ark' at v.'*]. Ahijah is probably to be identified with Ahimelech (21>). 2. 1 K 4', one of Solomon's secretaries, who conducted the king's correspondence and wrote out his decrees. His father Shlsha seems to have held the same office under David. 3. 1 K liw- 12is, 2 Ch 10", a prophet of Shiloh, who foretold the division of the kingdom and the elevation of Jeroboam. Subsequently he predicted .the death of Jeroboam's son (IK 142«). 4. IK IS"", father of Baasha. 5. 1 Ch 2^ has an Ahijah, son of Jerahmeel, but is hopelessly corrupt. The LXX gets rid of the name. 6. 1 Ch 8' (AV Ahiah), son of Ehud, a Benjamite: at v.' Ahoah, but LXX Ahijah, 7. 1 Ch 112», one of David's heroes, from Palon, an unknown locality: perhaps Giloh should be read, seeing that Palon has already been mentioned (v.^'). 8. 1 Ch 262", a Levite, overseer of the Temple treasures. But we ought probably to substitute the words, ' their brethren.' 9. Neh IC (RV Ahiah), a layman who joined Nehemiah in signing the covenant. J. Taylok.
AHIKAM. — One of the deputation sent by king Josiah to Huldah the prophetess (2 K 22i2- ", 2 Ch 342°). Later he used his influence to protect Jeremiah from the
violence of the populace during the reign of Jehoiakim (Jer 26").
AHILTTD. — 1. Father of Jehoshaphat, the chronicler under David and Solomon (2 S 8" 202«, 1 K 4M Ch 18«). 2. Father of Baana, one of Solomon's twelve commis- sariat ofiicers (1 K 412).
AHIMAAZ.- 1. Saul's father-in-law (1 S 14so). 2. Son of Zadok. He and Jonathan were stationed outside Jerusalem to learn Absalom's plans; after an adventurous journey they succeeded in warning David (2 S 15"- " 17"-^'). Ahimaaz was eager to carry the tidings of Absalom's defeat; but Joab preferred to send by an Ethiopian slave the unwelcome news of the prince's death. Obtaining leave to follow, Ahimaaz outstripped this man, was recognized by the watchman through the style of his running, but left the Ethiopian to disclose the worst (2 S 18"-'^). It may be the same person who appears later as Solomon's son-in-law and commissioner in Naphtali (1 K 4"). J. Taylor.
AHUVIAN'. — 1. One of the sons of Anak, at Hebron (Nu 1322): the three clans, of which this was one, were either destroyed by Judah (Jg l'"), or expelled by the clan Caleb (Jos 15"). 2. A family of Levites who had charge of that gate of the Temple through which the king entered (1 Oh 9"'). J. Taylor.
AHIMELECH.— 1. Son of Ahitub, and grandson of Phinehas. He either succeeded his brother Ahijah in the priesthood, or more probably was the same person under another name (1 S 142- 18). por his fate see DoEQ. In 2 S 8" and 1 Ch 18i« 24« the names of ADiathar and Ahimelech have been transposed. 2. A Hittite, who joined David when a fugitive (1 S 26").
AHIMOTH.— A Kohathite Levite (1 Ch 6^).
AHINADAp . — Son of Iddo, one of the 12 commissariat ofiicers appointed by Solomon (1 K 4").
AHTWOAM. — 1. Daughter of Ahimaaz and wife of Saul (1 S 145"). 2. A Jezreelitess whom David married after Michal had been taken from him. She was the mother of David's firstborn, Amnon (1 S 25" 27= 30', 2 S 22 32, 1 Ch 31).
AHIO. — 1. Son of Abinadab (No. 3), and brother of Uzzah. He helped to drive the cart on which the ark was placed when removed from Abinadab's house (2 S 6'- \ 1 Ch 13'). 2. A son of Jeiel, and brother of Kish, the father of Saul (1 Ch S'l 9"). 3. A Benjamite (1 Ch 8").
AHIBA. — Prince of NaphtaU, named at the census and on certain other occasions (Nu I's 223 7"- ^ 102' (P)).
AHIRAM. — The eponym of a Benjamite family — the Ahiramites, Nu 2688 (P). The name occurs in the corrupt forms Ehi in Gn 462i (P), and Aharah in 1 Ch 8'.
AHI8AHACH.— A Danite, father of OhoUab (Ex 31«
3531 3823 (P)).
AHISHAHAE.— A Benjamite (1 Ch 7i»).
AHISHAR.— Superintendent of Solomon's household (1 K 4«).
AHITHOPHEL.— David's counsellor (2 S IS", 1 Ch 2783), whose advice was deemed infallible (2 S 162'). Being Bathsheba's grandfather, he had been alienated by David's criminal conduct (lis 238«), and readily joined Absalom (15'2). Ahithophel advised the prince to take possession of the royal harem, thus declar- ing his father's deposition, and begged for a body of men with whom he might at once overtake and destroy the fugitive monarch (17' -8). Hushai thwarted this move (17"). Disgusted at the collapse of his influ- ence, and foreseeing that this lack of enterprise meant the failure of the insurrection, Ahithophel withdrew, set his affairs in order, and hanged himself (1728).
J. Taylor.
AHITOB (1 Es 82).— An ancestor of Ezra, son of Amarias and father of Sadduk. See Ahitub, No. 3.
18
AHITUB
AHITUB.— 1. Son of Phinehas and grandson of Ell, the father of Ahimeleoh or Ahijah, the priest who was put to death by Saul (1 S 14s 22»- «»). 2. Ace. to 2 S 8" ( = 1 Ch 1818) the father, ace. to 1 Ch 9>', Neh 11" the grandfather, of Zadok the priest who was eon- temporary with David and Solomon. It is very doubtful, however, whether the name Ahitub here is not due to a copyist's error. The text of 2 S 8" should probably run: 'and Zadok and Abiathar the son of Ahimelech, the son of Ahitub.' 3. Even more doubt attaches to another Ahitub, father of another Zadok (1 Ch 6"- «; cf. 1 Es S\ 2 Es !•). 4. An ancestor of Judith, Jth 8'.
AHLAB.— A city of Asher (Jg 1»). The site has been identified with the later Gush Halab or Giscala, now el- Jish in Upper Galilee; but this is, of course, uncertain.
AHLAI.— 1. The daughter (?) of Sheshan (1 Ch 2", cf. v.M). 2. The father of Zabad, one of David's mighty men (1 Ch 11").
AHOAH.— Son of Bela, a Benjamite (1 Ch 8'). See Ahijah (6) . The patronymic Ahohite occurs in 2 S 23".
AHOLAH, AHOUAB, AHOUBAH, ABOLIBAMAH. — The forms in AV of the correct RV Oholah, Oholiab, Oholibah, Oholibamah (wh. see).
AHUMAI.— A descendant of Judah (1 Ch i').
AHUZZAM.— A man of Judah (1 Ch 4=).
AHUZZATH.— 'The friend' of Ahimelech, the Philis- tine of Gerar, mentioned on the occasion when the latter made a league with Isaac at Beersheba (Gn 26^). The position of 'king's friend' may possibly have been an official one, and the title a technical one (cf. 1 K 4^, 1 Ch 27^) . The rendering of the LXX gives a different concep- tion, that of 'pronubus,' or friend of the bridegroom.
AHZAI.— A priest (Neh lli')=Jahzerah (1 Ch 9'').
AI. — 1. A place between which and Bethel Abraham was stationed before (Gn 12') and after (13') his sojourn in Egypt. The repulse of the Israelite attempt on the city (Jos 7'-') led to the exposure of the crime of Achan; when that was expiated, the city was captured and destroyed (8'-^') by a ruse. It never reappears in history, though it continued to be inhabited: it is the Aiath in Isaiah's description of the march of the Assyrian (lOM), and the Afja of Neh ll". In 1 Ch 7^' 'Azzah. enumerated among the cities of Ephraim, is in many MSS 'Ayyah, which is another form of the name. This, however, cannot in any case be the same place, which was within the tribe of Benjamin (Jos 18^', where Awim is possibly a corruption for the name of this city). After the Exile, Ai and Bethel between them supplied a contingent of 223 to the number that returned (Ezr 228), and the city was once more settled by Benja- mites (Neh 11"). That the city was insignificant is definitely stated in Jos T, and indicated by the fact that in the list of captured cities it is almost the only one of which the situation is specified (Jos 12'). Its capture, however, made a deep impression on the Canaanltes (Jos 9' 10'). As to its identification, the only indication to guide us is its proximity to Bethel (agreed by all to be Beitin), on the east of that place (as follows from Gn 128). Various sites have been proposed — Turmus 'Aya (which contains an element resembling the name, but the situation is impossible) ; Khurbet Hayan (which also has a similar name, but the antiquities of the place are not known to be old enough); Deir Diwan (which is in the right place, but also possibly not an old enough site); and et-Tell (a mound whose name has the same meaning as the word Ai 1' heap ']. Possibly this last is the most likely site.
2. A wholly distinct place, mentioned in a prophecy against the Ammonites, Jer 49' (perh. a clerical error for Ar). R. A. S. Macalistbk.
ATAIT —1 Son of Zibeon (Gn ZB'*, 1 Ch 1"). 2. Father of Rizpah, Saul's concubine (2 S 3' 21«- "■ ").
AIATH, Is 10^8; AUA, Neh 11".— See Ai, No. 1.
ALAMOTH
AUALON.— 1. A city allotted to, but not occupied by, Dan (Jos 19«, Jg 188). We find it in the hands of Rehoboam (2 Ch ll"); later the Philistines took it (2 Ch 28'8). It may be the modern Yaio, 3 miles N.E. of Latmn, 14 miles from Jerusalem. 2. An unknown town in Zebulun (Jg 12'!). W. Ewing.
AIJELETH HASH-SHAHAR, Ps 22 (title).— See Psalms.
AIN. — 1. A town in the neighbourhood of Riblah (Nu 34"), probably the modern el-'Ain near the source of the Orontes. 2. A town in Judah (Jos IS''), or Simeon (Jos 19'), where Ain and Rimmon should be taken together. It is probably Umm, er-Ramamln, to the N. of Beersheba. W. Ewing.
AIN. — The sixteenth letter of the Heb. alphabet, and so used to introduce the sixteenth part of Ps. 119.
AKAN. — A descendant of Esau (Gn 36"); called in 1 Ch 1" Jakan.
AKATAN (1 Es 8").— Father of Joannes, who returned with Ezra; called Hakkatan in Ezr 8''.
AKELDAMA (AV Aceldama).— The name of the 'potter's field' (Ac 1"), purchased for the burial of strangers with the blood-money returned by Judas (Mt 27'). The traditional site is at the E. side of the Wady er-Rababi (the so-called 'Valley of Hinnom') on the S. side of the valley. It is still known as Hakk ed-Dumm (' field of blood'), which represents the old name in sound and meaning. The identification fias not been traced earlier than the Crusaders, who erected here a charnel- house, the ruins of which still remain — a vault about 70 feet long and 20 feet wide (internal dimensions) erected over and covering the entrance to some of the ancient rock-cut tombs which abound in the valley. The skulls and bones which once thickly strewed the fioor of this charnel-house have all been removed to a modern Greek monastery adjacent. There is no evidence recoverable connecting this site with the work of potters. R. A. S. Macalistee.
AKKAD (ACGAD), AKKADIASS. —Akkadiu) is the Semitic equivalent of the Sumerian Agadd, the capital of the founder of the first Semitic empire. It was probably in consequence of this that it gave its name to Northern Babylonia, the Semitic language of which came to be known as Akkadu or 'Akkadian.' In the early days of cuneiform decipherment 'Akkadian' was the name usually applied tothe non-Semitic language of primitive Babylonia, but some cuneiform texts published by Bezold in 1889 (ZA p. 434) showed that this was called by the Babylonians themselves 'the language of Sumer' or Southern Babylonia, while a text recently published by Messerschmidt (.Orient. Ltztg. 1905, p. 268) states that Akkadu was the name of the Semitic 'translation.' When Babylonia became a united monarchy, its rulers took the title of 'kings of Sumer and Akkad' in Semitic, 'Kengl and Uri' in Sumerian, where Uri seems to have signified ' the upper region.' In Gn 10'° Accad is the city, not the country to which it gave its name. A. H. Sayce.
AEEOS (AV Accoz), 1 Es 5'8.— See Hakkoz.
AKKUB.— 1. A son of Elioenai (1 Ch 32*). 2. A Levite, one of the porters at the E. gate of the Temple; the eponym of a family that returned from the Exile (1 Ch 9", Ezr 2«, Neh 7« ii" 12»); called in 1 Es S" Dacubi. 3. The name of a family of Nethinim (Ezr 2«) ; called in 1 Es 5" Acud. 4. A Levite who helped to ex- pound the Law (Neh 8') ; called in 1 Es 9" Jacubus.
AKRABATTINE (1 Mac 5').— The region in Idumsea near Akrabbim.
AKRABBIM (less correctly Acrabbim Jos 15' AV, 'Scorpion Pass'). — The name given to an ascent on the south side of the Dead Sea, a very barren region.
ALABASTER. — See Jewels and PRECions Stones.
ALAMOTH, Ps 46 (title), 1 Ch 15™.— See Psalms.
19
ALBEIT
ALBEIT. — Albeit is a contraction tor 'all be it,' and means ' although it be.' It occurs in Ezk 13', Philem ", and in the Apocrypha.
ALCIMTTS (the Greeli for ' valiant,' suggested by the Hebrew Ellakim, 'God sets up') was son or nephew of Jose ben-Joeser, pupil to Antigonus of Socho (b.c. 190). Antiochus v. (Eupator), king of Syria, appointed him high priest (b.c. 162). Either because he was not of high priestly family (though of the stock of Aaron, 1 Mac 7"), or, more probably, from his Hellenizing tendencies, his appointment was stoutly opposed by Judas Maccabseus, and received but scanty recognition at Jerusalem. Demetrius Soter, cousin and successor to Antiochus, in response to Alcimus's solicitations, reinstated him by the means of Nicanor, the Syrian general. He now received, moreover, considerable local support from the Hellenizing party. It was not, however, till the defeat and death of Judas at Elasa that he was in a position to commence his Hellenizing measures, and shortly after- wards he died of paralysis (B.C. 160). A. W. Streane.
ALCOVE.— RVm (Nu 2S») for RV 'pavilion,' AV 'tent.' See Pavilion.
ALEMA (1 Mac S^*). — A city in Gilead; site unknown.
ALEMETH. — 1. A son of Becher the Benjamite (1 Ch 7»). 2. A descendant of Saul (1 Ch 8»» 9«).
ALEPH. — First letter of Heb. alphabet, and so used to introduce the first part of Ps 119.
ALEXANDER.— 1. Son of Simon of Cyrene; like his brother Rufus, evidently a well-known man (Mk 15'' only). 2. One of the high-priestly family (Ac i'). 3. The would-be spokesman of the Jews in the riot at Ephesus, which endangered them as well as the Christians (Ac 19^); not improbably the same as the coppersmith (2 Ti 4") who did St. Paul 'much evil,' and who was probably an Ephesian Jew; possibly the same as the Alexander of 1 Ti 1'° (see HvMEN^ns), in which case we may regard him as an apostate Christian who had relapsed into Judaism. A. J. Maclean.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.— A Jewish tradition, reported by Josephus and the Talmud, relates that whilst the renowned Macedonian conqueror was besieging Tyre (B.C. 333), rival embassies from the Jews and the Samaritans solicited his protection. At the close of the siege he set out for Jerusalem, and was met outside by the entire population, with the high priest at their head. Recognizing the latter as the person who had appeared to him in a dream and promised him victory, the king prostrated himself. He then entered the city, offered sacrifice, was shown the passages in Daniel relating to himself, granted the people unmolested use of their customs, promised to befriend their eastern settle- ments, and welcomed Jews to his army (,Ant. xi. viii.). The objections to this story are: (1) that although there are references to Alexander and his successors in Daniel (24off. 77 g6. 8. 21 1131), tjiey were not written till the 2nd cent. B.C.; and (2) that the accounts given by Arrian and Curtius do not mention these events. It is also most likely that when Josephus declares that Alex- ander gave to the Jews in Alexandria equal privileges with the Macedonians (c. Ap. ii. 4), he is anticipating by some years what happened under the Ptolemys.
The deep impression made by Alexander's successes is evinced by the numerous legends connected with his name in later Jewish literature. But his real importance to the Biblical student consists in this — he brought the Jews into contact with Greek literature and life.
J. Tatlob.
ALEXABDER BALAS.— A low-born youth called Balas, living in Smyrna, was put forward by the enemies of Demetrius i. as son of Antiochus iv., king of Syria. In their struggle for the throne the rivals sought to out- bid each other for the support of Jonathan Maccabaeus, who elected to side with Alexander, and was appointed high priest by him (b.c. 153). Jonathan defeated
20
ALEXANDRIA
Apollonius, one of the generals of Demetrius, and received still further honours (1 Mac 10). But Alexander Balas cared more for sensual pleasures than for kingly duties : his father-in-law Ptolemy turned against him, and Alexander, fleeing to Arabia, was assassinated there (1 Mac 11"). J. Taylor.
ALEXANDRIA was founded (b.c. 332) by Alex- ander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Recog- nizing the inconvenience caused by the want of a harbour for 600 miles along the shore, he selected as the site of a new port the village of Rhacotis, lying on a strip of land between Lake Mareotis and the sea. This he united to the little island of Pharos by a huge mole about a mile long, and thus he formed two splendid havens, which speedily became the commercial meeting- place of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The city was laid out in shape Uke the outspread cloak of a Macedonian soldier; in circumference about 15 miles: and it was divided into quarters by a magnificent street nearly 5 miles long, and 100 feet wide, running from E. to W., and crossed by another of somewhat lesser dimensions from N. to S. One of these quarters (Soma, ' the body ') received the corpse of Alexander, and preserved it embalmed in the Royal Mausoleum. The Ptolemys, who succeeded to the Egyptian portion of Alexander's divided empire, made Alexandria their capital, and by their extensive building operations rendered the city famous for the magnificence and beauty of its public edifices. Besides the Royal Palace, the Royal Mausoleum, the Temple of Neptune, the Great Theatre, the Gymnasium, and the vast Necropolis, Alexandria possessed three other structures for which it was cele- brated. (1) The Museum, which was not a place where collections were laid out for instruction, but a spot where the fine arts, science, and literature were studied. The Museum of Alexandria became in course of time practically the centre of the intellectual life of the world. It answered very largely to what we associate with the idea of a great modern university. It had its staff of State-paid professors, its professorial dining-hall, its shaded cloisters, where eager students from all parts of the world walked to and fro, listening to lectures from men like Euclid, Eratosthenes, and Hipparchus. (2) The Library, which was the greatest treasure of the city, was founded by the first Ptolemy. His successors increased the number of volumes till the collection embraced upwards of 700,000 MSS, in which were inscribed the intellectual efforts of Greece, Rome, Asia Minor, Palestine, and even India. The value of this unrivalled collection was immense. The Library was in two portions; and, in the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar, the part stored in the Museum was burned; a loss, however, which was largely made up by the presentation to Cleopatra, by Mark Antony, of the Royal Library of Pergamum. The other portion was stored in the Serapeum, which in 1895 was discovered to have been situated where 'Pompey's Pillar' now stands. History is undecided as to whether this celebrated Library was destroyed in a.d. 391 by Bishop Theophilus or by the Caliph Omar in a.d. 641. (3) The third structure which attracted the attention of the world to Alexandria was the Pharos (Lighthouse), erected by Ptol. II. Philadelphus.on the island which had been joined to the mainland by Alexander. Rising in storeys of decreasing dimensions to a height of 450-490 ft., adorned with white marble columns, balustrades, and statues, it was justly reckoned one of the 'Seven Wonders of the World.' Though it was destroyed by an earth- quake in A.D. 1303, it has nevertheless exercised a permanent infiuence on mankind. The idea of humanity to the mariner which it embodied was accepted by almost every civilized nation, and the thousands of lighthouses throughout the world to-day can all be traced to the gracious thoughtfulness which was dis- played in the costly erection of this first Pharos.
ALEXANDRIA
ALLAR
In its times of greatest prosperity, Alexandria tiad a population of between 800,000 and 1,000,000. Trade, amusement, and learning attracted to it inhabitants from every quarter. It was an amalgam of East and West. The alertness and versatility of the Greek were here united with the gravity, conservativeness, and dreaminess of the Oriental. Alexandria became, next to Rome, the largest and most splendid city in the world. Amongst its polyglot community, the Jews formed no inconsiderable portion. Jewish colonists had settled in Egypt in large numbers after the destruc- tion of Jerusalem (Jer 42'"), and during the Persian period their numbers greatly increased. The Ptolemys, with one exception, favoured them, and assigned a special quarter of the city to them. More than an eighth of the population of Egypt was Jewish. Their business instincts brought to them the bulk of the trade of the country. They practically controlled the vast export of wheat. Some had great ships with which they traded over all the Mediterranean. St. Paul twice sailed in a ship of Alexandria (Ac 27' 28"). The Jews were under their own governor or 'Alabarch,' and observed their own domestic and religious customs. Their great central synagogue was an immense and most imposing structure, where all the trade guilds sat together, and the 70 elders were accommodated in 70 splendidly bejewelled chairs of state.
It was in Alexandria that one of the most important events in the history of religion took place, when. the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into the Greek tongue. The legendary tales narrated by Josephus re- garding the accomplishment of this task may be dis- missed as baseless. But it is undisputed that during the reigns of the earlier LagidEe (somewhere between B.C. 250 and 132) the ' Septuagint ' made its appearance. It is certainly not the product of a syndicate of trans- lators working harmoniously, as Jewish tradition asserted. The work is of very unequal merit, the Penta- teuch being the best done, while some of the later books are wretchedly translated. The translation was re- garded by the Jews with mingled feelings, — execrated by one section as the grossest desecration of the holy oracles, extolled by another section as the means by which the beauties of the Law and the Prophets could be appreciated for the first time by the Greek-speaking Gentile world. The LXX became, under God's provi- dence, a most valuable preparation for the truths of Christianity. It familiarized the heathen nations with the God of righteousness as He had been revealed to the Jewish race. It paved the way for the gospel. It formed the Bible of the early Church. In the Eastern Church to-day it is the only orthodox text of the OT.
The wars of the Ptolemys with the Seieucidae at Antioch are described in Dn 11. Ptolemyii. Philaddphus left his mark on Palestine in the cities of Philadelphia ( = Rabbath-ammon, Dt 3"), Ptolemais (Ac 21' = Aceo, Jg 1''), Philoteria, etc. Under Ptolemy iii. Euergetes i. (B.C. 247-222) the famous 'stele of Canopus' was in- scribed. With Ptolemy iv. Philopatar the dynasty began to decline, and his oppressions of the Jews (largely mythical) are narrated in 3 Maccabees. Under Ptolemy V. Epiphanes the Alexandrian supremacy over Palestine was exchanged for that of Antiochus in. the Great (Dn 11"-"). In his reign the celebrated ' Rosetta stone' was erected. The ten succeeding Ptolemys were dis- tinguished for almost nothing but their effeminacy, folly, luxury, and cruelty. The city increased in wealth, but sank more and more in political power. Julius Caesar stormed Alexandria in B.C. 47, and after a brief spell of false splendour under Cleopatra, it fell after the battle of Actium into the hands of the Romans, and its fortunes were henceforth merged with those of the Empire.
But while its political power was thus passing away. It was developing an intellectual greatness destined to exercise a profound influence through succeeding centuries. Among its Jewish population there had
arisen a new school which sought to amalgamate Hebrew tradition and Greek philosophy, and to make the OT yield up Platonic and Stoic doctrines. This attempted fusion of Hebraism and Hellenism was begun by Aristobulus, and reached its climax in Philo, a contem- porary of Jesus Christ. The Jews found in the Gentile writings many beautiful and excellent thoughts. They could logically defend their own proud claim to be the sole depositaries and custodians of Divine truth only by asserting that every rich and luminous Greek expres- sion was borrowed from their Scriptures. Plato and Pythagoras, they declared, were deeply in debt to Moses. The Greeks were merely reproducers of Hebrew ethics, and Hebrew religious and moral conceptions. The next step was to re-write their own Scriptures in terms of Greek philosophy, and the most simple way of doing this was by an elaborate system of allegory. Philo carried the allegorizing of the OT to such an extent that he was able to deduce all the spurious philosophy he required from the most matter-of-fact narratives of the patriarchs and their wives. But it was a false issue. It was based on a logical figment, and Philo's voluminous works, gifted and learned though he was, merely reveal that there was no hope either for Greek philosophy or for Hebrew religious development along these lines. The results of the allegorical method of interpretation, however, were seen in Christian Church history. We read of a ' synagogue of the Alexandrians ' in Jerusalem, furiously hostile to St. Stephen with his plain declara- tion of facts (Ac 6'). Apollos of Alexandria (Ac IS''-^^) needed to be ' more accurately instructed ' in Christian doctrine, though we have no direct evidence that he was a disciple of Philo. The Ep. to the Hebrews shows traces of Alexandrian influence, and there are evidences that St. Paul was not unfamiliar with Alexandrian hermeneutics and terminology (cf. Gal 4w-'i). But there is no proof that St. Paul ever visited Alex- andria. He seems to have refrained from going thither because the gospel had already reached the city (cf. Ro 15^°). Eusebius credits St. Mark with the intro- duction of Christianity into Egypt. In the 2nd and 3rd cents. Alexandria was the intellectual capital of Christendom. The Alexandrian school of theology was made lustrous by the names of Pantaenus, Clement, and especially Origen, who, while continuing the allegorical tradition, strove to show that Christian doctrine en- shrined and realized the dreams and yearnings of Greek philosophy. The evil tendencies of the method found expression in the teachings of the Alexandrian heretics, Basilides and Valentinian. Alexandria became more and more the stronghold of the Christian faith. Here Athanasius defended contra mundum the true Divinity of Christ in the Nieene controversy, and the city's influence on Christian theology has been profound. In A.D. 641, Alexandria fell before Amrou; in the 7th cent, it began to decline. The creation of Cairo was another blow, and the discovery in 1497 of the new route to the East via the Cape of Good Hope almost destroyed its trade. At the beginning of the 19th cent. Alexandria was a mere village. To-day it is again a large and flourishing city, with a rapidly increasing population of over 200,000, and its port is one of the busiest on the Mediterranean shore. G. A. Frank Knight.
ALGUM.— See Almug.
ALIAH.— A 'duke' of Edom (1 Ch 1"); called in Gn 36" Alvah.
ALIAN.— A descendant of Esau (1 Ch 1"); called in Gn 3623 Alvan.
ALIEN. — See Nations, Stbangek.
ALLAMMELECH.— A town of Asher, probably near Acco (Jos 1926). Site unidentifled.
ALLAB (1 Es 6^).— One of the leaders of those Jews who could not show their pedigree as Israelites at the return from captivity under Zerubbabel. The name
21
ALLEGORY
seems to correspond to Immer in Ezr 2", Neh 7", one of the places from which these Jews returned. In 1 Es 'Cherub, Addan, and Immer' appear as ' Gharaathalan leading them and Allar.'
ALLEGORY.— See Pakable.
ALLELUIA. — See Hallelujah.
ALLEMETH, AV Alemeth.l Ch 6«»; Almon, Jos 21i».— A Levltical city of Benjamin. It is the present 'Almit on the hills N. of Anathoth.
ALLIANCE . — In the patriarchal age alliances between the Chosen People and foreign nations were frequent. Many of the agreements between individuals recorded in Genesis implied, or really were, treaties between the tribes or clans represented (Gn 21^''- 31"^). 'During the period of the Judges confederations between the more or less isolated units of which the nation was composed were often made under the pressure of a common danger (Jg 4'" 6^). When Israel became consolidated under the monarchy, alliances with foreigners were of a more formal character, e.g. Solomon's treaty with Hiram (1 K S. 9). His marriage with Pharaoh's daughter probably had a political significance (31 918) The policy of alliance between Israel and Phcenicia was continued by Omri and Ahab (16"); Am 1' speaks of it as a 'covenant of brethren'; it rested, no doubt, on reciprocal commercial interests (cf. Ac 12™). Asa and Baasha contended for alliance with Benhadad (1 K 15"), and Judah and Israel them- selves are allied during the reigns of Jehoshaphat and Ahab. Such a friendship is denounced in 2 Ch 25. Pekah and Rezin are united against Judah (2 K 16', Is 7). With the appearance of Assyria, relations with foreign nations become important and complicated. The temptation is to stave off the danger from the east by alUance with Damascus or Egypt. Sennacherib assumes that this will be the policy of Hezekiah (2 K 1821. 24). The prophets from the first set their faces against it (Dt 17«, Hos 8», Is 20. 30, Jer 2"- »). It is ' the hiring of lovers ' in place of J", leading to sin and idolatry (2 K 16), and is politically unsound, resting 'on a broken reed.' The parties being so unequal, the ally easily becomes the tributary (16'). After the Return, Ezra and Nehemiah oppose any alliance with ' the people of the land.' In later times, for a short period only, did the nation gain sufficient independence to make an alliance; in this case it was with Rome (1 Mac 8" 15").
C. W. Emmet.
ALLOTS. — 1 . The head of a family of ' Solomon's ser- vants' (1 Es 5"). He may be the same as Ami (Ezr 2*'), or Amon (Neh 7"). 2. A Simeonlte prince (1 Ch 4").
ALLON BACUTH ('oak of weeping').— The place where Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was buried; it was near Bethel (Gn 35»).
ALL TO BREAK.— This phrase (Jg 9") means altogether broke. The 'all' is used for altogether, as in 1 K 14'° 'till it be all gone'; and the 'to' is not the sign of the infin., but an adverb like Germ, zer, meaning thoroughly. Thus, ' His brest to-broken with his sadil bowe' — Chaucer, Knight's Tale, 2759. The correct spell- ing (as in the original ed. of AV) is 'all to brake.'
ALLOW, — To 'allow' generally means in AV 'to approve,' as Ro 7i' 'that which I do I allow not.' But in Ac 24" it has the mod. sense, admit.
ALLOY.— RVm (Is 1^) for EV 'tin.' See Mining and Metals.
ALMIGHTY is the regular rendering of Shaddai, which occurs altogether 45 times in the OT; 6 times qualifying El (God) and 39 times [31 of these in Job) standing by itself. In the Hexateuch its use is almost confined to P, according to which source it is the name by which God revealed Himself to the patriarchs (Ex 6^ cf. Gn 17' 35"). The meaning and derivation are aUke obscure. The LXX usually render by PantokratBr ('Almighty'); 6 times by a fanciful derivation they
22
ALMS, ALMSGIVING
paraphrase by 'He that is sufficient.' But in Gn. Bl Shaddai is always represented in the LXX by a pronoun, 'my (or thy) God'; in Ezk 10» it is merely transUterated. Other suggested renderings are 'the Destroyer," i.e. 'the Storm-God,' 'the Pourer,' i.e. 'the Rain-God,' 'the Mountain' (cf. 'Rock' as a title of God in Dt 32«- 's- "'■ "), or 'Lord.' The last two have the most probability on their side, and it is hard to choose between them; but the fact that in Babylonian 'the Great Mountain' ^shadu rabu) is a common title of Bel seems to turn the scale in favour of the former of the two meanings proposed: some slight confirmation is perhaps afforded by 1 K 20^'. In composition the word occurs in two personal names: Zurishaddai (Nu 1*) and Ammishaddai (Nu 1'^); per- haps also in Shedeur (Nu 1'). The first ('Shaddai is my Rock') is specially interesting if the meaning given above is correct.
In the NT, with the exception of 2 Co 6" (a quotation from 2 S 7"), the name is confined to the Apocalypse. That it renders Shaddai rather than Sabaoth seems proved (in spite of 4* from Is 6') by the fact that it always either stands alone or qualifies 'God,' never 'Lord.' The writer is fond of piling up the titles or attributes of God, and among them his favourite is that ancient title which carries him back to the patriarchal age, the title El Shaddai. H. C. O. Lanchester.
AL-MODAD was, according to Gn 10« (1 Ch l^"), the oldest son of Joktan (wh. see). Joktan is the eponym of the tribes and peoples of eastern and southern Arabia. From the position of Al-modad in the list of 'sons,' it would appear that he is to be located in the south of the peninsula. As yet the name can neither be explained nor identified with any known region.
J. F. McCUEDY.
ALMON. — See Allemeth.
ALMON-DIBLATHAIM.— A station in the journey- ings (Nu 33«- "), prob. identical with Beth-diblathaim (Jer 48^2). The meaning of Diblathaim is a double cake of figs; its application to a town may indicate the appearance of the place or neighbourhood.
ALMOND (shaqed). —Tiie fruit in Gn 43", Ex 2535- « 37i9-2o_ Nu 178; the tree in Ec 12*, Jer 1". Luz (Gn 30^'), mistranslated ' hazel,' is certainly the almond; it is the name of the almond in modern Arabic. The almond (Amygdalus communis) is in Palestine the earliest harbinger of spring, bursting into beautiful white blossom late in January in Jerusalem, before its leaves appear. Hence its name and symbolism: shdged means to waken or watch, and in Jer 1"- " there is a play on the word 'almond' (shaqM), and 'I will hasten' {shbqM). Probably the whiteness of the blossom from a little distance — the delicate pink at the bases of the petals being visible only on closer inspection — suggested its comparison to the white hair of age (Ec 12'). The fruit is a great favourite. It is eaten green before the shell hardens, especially by children, and the ripe kernels are eaten by themselves or with nuts and pud- dings, and are also made into sweetmeats with sugar, both as ' almond icing ' and ' burnt almonds. ' A present of Palestine almonds would be sure to be appreciated in Egypt (Gn 43"), as they did not grow in the latter country. e. W. G. Mastebman.
ALMS, ALMSGIVING.— 'An alms' (Ac 3^) is some- thing freely given, in money or in kind, to the needy, from motives of love and pity for the recipient, and of gratitude to the Giver of all. Hence what is given or paid to the poor under the authority and compulsion of la,w, as the modern poor rate, is not alms. For such legal provision in OT times see Poor. Much might
V, f' . ?l the humane spirit which pervades the whole of the Hebrew legislation, and in particular the legislation of Dt, of which, in this respect, 15i mav be taken as the epitome: 'Thou shalt surely open thine hand unto thy brother, to thy needy and to thy poor'
ALMUG
ALTAR
(RV). The writings of the prophets, also, are full of generous advocacy ot the rights of the poor. In the later pre-Christian centuries almsgiving became one of the most prominent of religious duties (Ps 112', Pr 14» 19" 312", Job 29'"). The sentiment of the 2nd cent. B.C. — by which time it is signiflcant that the Hebrew word for 'righteousness' had acquired the special sense of almsgiving as in the true text of Mt 6' (see RV) — is fully reflected in the Books of Sirach (7>» 17« 29"« ) and Tobit (see esp. 4'-"). From this time onwards, indeed, almsgiving was considered to possess an atoning or redemptive efficacy (Sir 38« 'alms (RV 'almsgiving'] maketh an atonement for sins,' To 4'° 12' 'alms de- livereth from death,' cf. Dn 4"). After the cessation of sacrifice, almsgiving appears to have ranked among the Jews as the first of religious duties, more meritorious even than prayer and fasting. Arrangements were made by the Jewish authorities for the systematic